MA4701 Aircraft Design PDF

MA4701 AIRCRAFT DESIGN AIRCRAFT DESIGN PROCESS Dr. Chow Wai Tuck Office: N3.2-02-29 Email: [email protected] AIRCRAFT DESIGN PROCESS REFERENCE: Chap 1-3, Aircraft Design: A Conceptual Approach by Daniel Raymer 2012  DESIGN WHEEL Source: Raymer, Aircraft Design MA4701 Aircraft De...

MA4701 AIRCRAFT DESIGN AIRCRAFT DESIGN PROCESS Dr. Chow Wai Tuck Office: N3.2-02-29 Email: [email protected] AIRCRAFT DESIGN PROCESS REFERENCE: Chap 1-3, Aircraft Design: A Conceptual Approach by Daniel Raymer 2012  DESIGN WHEEL Source: Raymer, Aircraft Design MA4701 Aircraft Design DESIGN REQUIREMENTS  Customer needs  Airworthiness Certification MA4701 Aircraft Design  DESIGN REQUIREMENTS  What is the aircraft supposed to do? Passenger, cargo, business jet, etc… What type of cargo will it carry  bulky, low density, etc…  How far and fast does it need to go  range and cruise speed  Which destinations? Take-off/landing requirements  Design standards, specifications, and certification  FAR 25, etc… /!\ Design standards and specifications must confirm the certification standards  Technology: What is currently available? What is under development? What do I need????? MA4701 Aircraft Design EXAMPLE EXECUTIVE BUSINESS JET  Range: 1,300nm (2,400km)  Cruise Speed: 360 kn  Airfield: Essex County Airport (near New York city), 1387 x 24 m/4552 x 80 ft  Payload: 5 passengers MA4701 Aircraft Design  FUTURE TREND FOR BUSINESS JET Source: Honeywell Aviation Outlook MA4701 Aircraft Design AIRCRAFT DESIGN PROCESS – 3 PHASES Requirements: Conceptual Design Preliminary Design Detail Design MA4701 Aircraft Design  CONCEPTUAL DESIGN  What requirements drive the design?  What should it look like? Weight? Cost?  What tradeoff should be considered?  What technologies should be used?  Do these requirements produce a viable and profitable plane? MA4701 Aircraft Design  CONCEPTUAL DESIGN Source: Advanced Aircraft Design by Egbert Torenbeek 2013 MA4701 Aircraft Design  EXAMPLE: CONCEPTUAL HYPERSONIC JET DESIGN Boeing unveils conceptual hypersonic jet design to replace the SR-71 Blackbird The jet would hit speeds of more than Mach 5 https://www.businessinsider.sg/boeing-unveils-sr-71-conceptual-hypersonic-jet-design-2018-1/?r=US&IR=T MA4701 Aircraft Design CONCEPTUAL HYPERSONIC JET DESIGN MA4701 Aircraft Design  CONCEPTUAL DESIGN – INITIAL ANALYSIS (AERO, WEIGHT, PROPULSION) Aerodynamics Analysis Weight Analysis Propulsion Analysis MA4701 Aircraft Design CONCEPTUAL HYPERSONIC JET DESIGN MA4701 Aircraft Design TECHNOLOGY READINESS LEVELS (TRL) MA4701 Aircraft Design PRELIMINARY DESIGN  Freeze the configuration  Develop lofting (surface definition)  Develop test and analytical database  Design major items  Develop actual cost estimates (statistical) “You bet your company!” MA4701 Aircraft Design EXAMPLE: LOCKHEED P-38 LIGHTNING (1941) MA4701 Aircraft Design EXAMPLE: AIRBUS A380 – CABIN LAYOUT MA4701 Aircraft Design DETAIL DESIGN  Design actual pieces to be built  Design tooling and fabrication process  Test major items-structure, landing gear,…  Finalize weight and performance estimates “NOW you learn the real numbers!” MA4701 Aircraft Design EXAMPLE: CURTISS P-40 WARHAWK - 1939 (WING TIP BLUE PRINT) http://www.p40warhawk.com/Models/Technical/Technical.htm MA4701 Aircraft Design INTEGRATED PRODUCT DEVELOPMENT (IPD) MODERN DESIGN PHILOSOPHY:  Integrated Product Development (IPD) accomplished by an Integrated Product Team (IPT). Ensemble of engineering, production, and customer representative.  If poorly run, too many heads making too many comments or insufficient interactions, project does not get anywhere  Essential to have a project leader, usually is the DESIGNER MA4701 Aircraft Design ASSIGNMENT  Define a team structure: Pyramidal vs. horizontal Define a project leader/facilitator Define a project manager for each subsection of aircraft design  Decide the type of aircraft to be designed Type of aircraft Mission definition Areas of focus/technologies (these will be a function of the aircraft being designed) Justification  Read past year AIAA winning design reports  Remember the “Rules of the game” MA4701 Aircraft Design SPECIFICATIONS  Specifications for a new aircraft Customer based: the aircraft manufacturer answers a list of requests from potential customers Market based: the aircraft manufacturer completes a market analysis and forecasts the needs of a current customer to replace or add a class of aircraft in 20 years time Technology based: the aircraft manufacturer develops aircraft that are more technologically advanced than the existing ones (A350 vs B787) and makes it worthwhile for the customer to purchase/lease the new aircraft  Think outside the box!!!! MA4701 Aircraft Design MARKET FORECAST  Market Forecasts – Commercial Aviation: Boeing: https://www.boeing.com/commercial/market/commercial- market-outlook#downloads Airbus: https://www.airbus.com/en/products-services/commercial- aircraft/market/global-market-forecast Embraer: https://www.embraercommercialaviation.com/marketoutlook/ MA4701 Aircraft Design QUALITY VS QUANTITY In a pottery-making class, the teacher split the class into two groups: the first group was to focus on making as many clay pots as they could in the hour; the second group was to focus on making the highest quality clay pot within the hour. At the end, the teacher would grade them on who made the highest quality clay pot. When the class was over, the teacher examined the clay pots and announced that the highest quality pot made was from the group who focused on quantity – making the most clay pots in the hour. Bayles and Orland 2001 MA4701 Aircraft Design MA4701 AIRCRAFT DESIGN LIFE CYCLE COST ANALYSIS I Dr. Chow Wai Tuck Office: N3.2-02-29 Email: [email protected] LIFE CYCLE COST ANALYSIS REFERENCE: Chap 2, General Aviation Aircraft Design by Snorri Gudmundson 2014 (ebook) WEAPON SYSTEM LIFE CYCLES EXPENSIVE ASSET NEEDS LONG ECONOMIC LIFE ! Source: MIT OCW MA4701 Aircraft Design COST PROFILE - MILITARY MA4701 Aircraft Design RATIO OF OPERATING AND SUPPORT COSTS TO LIFE-CYCLE COSTS FOR MILITARY SYSTEM MA4701 Aircraft Design ENGINEERING AND MANUFACTURING DEVELOPMENT LIFE CYCLE COST COMMITMENT MA4701 Aircraft Design COST MODELING  EMPIRICAL DATA FROM PAST PROGRAMS RAND – DAPCA IV – past military aircraft GA modification by Eastlake et. al. – modified for smaller aircraft  REGRESSION DATA WEIGHT, SPEED AND QUANTITY  ADDITIONAL FACTOR CERTIFICATION REQT, COMPLEXITY AND COMPOSITE MATERIAL MA4701 Aircraft Design COST CATEGORY  COST OF DEVELOPMENT COST OF ENGINEERING COST OF DEVELOPMENT SUPPORT COST OF TOOLING COST OF FLIGHT TEST  COST OF PRODUCTION MA4701 Aircraft Design  DEVELOPMENT COST DATA Boeing data for large commercial jet MA4701 Aircraft Design ENGINEERING COST – DAPCA IV 0.777 0.894 0.163 Engineering Manhour = 4.86 WEIGHT VELOCITY QUANTITY MA4701 Aircraft Design WEIGHT PILATUS PC 21 C130 MA4701 Aircraft Design SPEED PILATUS PC 21 F35 MA4701 Aircraft Design ENGINEERING COST – DAPCA IV 0.777 0.894 0.163 Engineering Manhour = 4.86 WEIGHT VELOCITY QUANTITY Caution on the correlation FACTOR! R2 = 0.72 MA4701 Aircraft Design COST OF DEVELOPMENT SUPPORT DEVELOPMENT SUPPORT  OVERHEAD (Managers, Executives etc.)  ADMINISTRATION (Clerks, Accountants, etc.)  LOGISTICS  HUMAN RESOURCE  SALES & MARKETING  FACILITIES PERSONNEL 0.63 1.3 DEVELOPMENT SUPPORT = 95.24 WEIGHT VELOCITY MA4701 Aircraft Design TOOLING COST – DAPCA IV 0.777 0.696 0.263 Tooling Manhour = 5.99 WEIGHT VELOCITY QUANTITY MA4701 Aircraft Design TOOLING COST 12 meters fuselage panels roll- bending machine  COST OF FLIGHT TEST PRODUCTION OF PROTOTYPE + FLIGHT TEST 0.325 0.822 1.21 FLIGHT TEST = 2606.51 WEIGHT VELOCITY PROTOTYPE MA4701 Aircraft Design COST OF FLIGHT TEST Denial Blame Instrumentation Blame pilot Blame test plan Anger Re-fly “Why didn’t we know about Bargaining this sooner?” Band Aid fix Five Stages of Waiver? Flight Test Grief ELOS? (equivalent level of safety) AFM Limit? (Airplane Flight Manual) Re-design Depression Address root cause Schedule & Cost Acceptance Source: SFTE.ORG Impact Study MA4701 Aircraft Design COST CATEGORY  COST OF PRODUCTION COST OF MANUFACTURING COST OF QUALITY CONTROL COST OF MATERIALS MOST AIRCRAFT PROGRAM PLANS TO BREAK EVEN ON YEAR 5. DAPCA MODEL BASED ON 5 YEARS QUANTITY. MA4701 Aircraft Design  MANUFACTURING COST – DAPCA IV 0.82 0.484 0.641 Manufacturing Manhour = 7.37 WEIGHT VELOCITY QUANTITY MA4701 Aircraft Design MANUFACTURING – A320 ASSEMBLY MA4701 Aircraft Design MANUFACTURING COST – DAPCA IV MA4701 Aircraft Design LEARNING CURVE – QUANTITY DISCOUNT FACTOR Manufacturing Cost per Unit reduces over time due to learning experience. Typical assumption, FEXP = 80%. MA4701 Aircraft Design  QUALITY CONTROL COST – DAPCA IV Quality Control Manhour = 0.133 Manufacturing Manhour NDI of Composites MA4701 Aircraft Design MATERIAL COST – DAPCA IV 0.921 0.621 0.799 Material Cost = 23.066 WEIGHT VELOCITY QUANTITY MA4701 Aircraft Design MODIFICATION OF COST ESTIMATES FOR SMALL AIRCRAFT DESIGN (GA) FAR 23/25 MA4701 Aircraft Design COST COMPARISON BETWEEN COMPOSITE AND ALUMINUM AIRCRAFT MA4701 Aircraft Design AIRBUS 350 – DEVELOPMENT PLAN MA4701 Aircraft Design VIDEO ON ASSEMBLY OF A340 how an aeroplane is built - A340 600 https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=4ksq9lbYJj0 MA4701 Aircraft Design MA4701 AIRCRAFT DESIGN LIFE CYCLE COST ANALYSIS II Dr. Chow Wai Tuck Office: N3.2-02-29 Email: [email protected] OPERATIONS AND SUPPORT TYPICAL AIRLINE COST STRUCTURE Note: Cost of Engineering ~1% MA4701 Aircraft Design  MARKET ESTIMATES – COMMERCIAL AIRLINER * Includes Turboprops Forecast in 2013 $USD, exclusive of inflation Source: ICF SH&E analysis MA4701 Aircraft Design AIRCRAFT MAINTENANCE MA4701 Aircraft Design  LINE MAINTENANCE  Maintenance done on flight line (airport) Turnaround maintenance & servicing Daily checks Short interval checks MA4701 Aircraft Design  LINE MAINTENANCE  Daily checks Inspection for damage and deterioration Visually inspect tail skid shock strut pop-up indicator Check fluid levels Check general security, maintenance and cleanliness of flight deck Check that emergency equipment is installed  A-Check 50-70 man-hours with a/c on-ground for >10 hours General external visual inspection of aircraft structure for damage, deformation, corrosion and missing parts Check crew oxygen system pressure Operationally check emergency lights Lubricate nose gear retract actuator Check parking brake accumulator pressure Perform Built-in Test Equipment (BITE) test of Flap/Slat Electronics Unit MA4701 Aircraft Design AIRFRAME MAINTENANCE  D CHECK - HEAVY MAINTENANCE VISIT 10,000-50,000 man-hours and 1-2 months to complete aircraft is taken apart completely nondestructive inspection: X-rays, eddy current and ultrasonic checks MA4701 Aircraft Design ENGINE MAINTENANCE  1-2 months to complete  Engine is taken apart completely  Part replacement MA4701 Aircraft Design COMPONENT MAINTENANCE  All component items besides the airframe and engine MA4701 Aircraft Design COMPONENT MAINTENANCE Source: ICF SH&E analysis MA4701 Aircraft Design VARIABLE COST ANALYSIS FOR A TYPICAL BUSINESS JET AIRCRAFT MA4701 Aircraft Design FIXED-COST ANALYSIS FOR A TYPICAL BUSINESS JET AIRCRAFT MA4701 Aircraft Design VIDEO ON A380 3C-CHECK Emirates A380 First 3C-Check British Airways Boeing 747-400 in D-Check https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=3hLXP1R8y6o https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=x_yHtfGH0nI MA4701 AIRCRAFT DESIGN LIFE CYCLE COST ANALYSIS III Dr. Chow Wai Tuck Office: N3.2-02-29 Email: [email protected] EXAMPLE – VERY LIGHT JET HONDAJET MARKET ESTIMATES – BUSINESS JET 22,368 business jets in the worldwide fleet Projected VLJ is 160 a/c per year MA4701 Aircraft Design VERY LIGHT JET Cessna Citation Mustang Embraer Phenom 100 Cirrus Vision SF50 HondaJet MA4701 Aircraft Design COST TO DEVELOPMENT/PRODUCTION (1ST 5 YEARS) FOR VLJ N=200 DAPCA GA Cost of Development $433 M $158 M Cost of Production (5 years) $529 M $235 M Overall Cost (5 years) $962 M $393 M Overall Cost (5 years - GA) Overall Cost (5 years - DAPCA) Cost of Engineering Cost of Engineering Cost of Development Support Cost of Development Support 5% Cost of Flight Test 12% 9% 27% 26% Cost of Flight Test 7% Cost of Tooling Cost of Tooling 0% Cost of Manufacturing 3% Cost of Manufacturing 46% 36% 5% Cost of Quality Control Cost of Quality Control 2% 10% Cost of Materials Cost of Materials 12% MA4701 Aircraft Design COST ANALYSIS $25,000,000 $20,000,000 $15,000,000 Unit Selling Price HondaJet $10,000,000 $5.4mil $5,000,000 $- 50 100 150 200 Unit Produced in 5 years GA DAPCA Rapid drop in price initially. Need to sell sufficient units to ensure break-even. Sold 2017-2019 are 43, 37 and 36 units respectively, ie. ~200 a/c in 5 years. MA4701 Aircraft Design OPERATION - VARIABLE COST Maintenance MA4701 Aircraft Design OPERATION - FIXED COST MA4701 Aircraft Design LIFE CYCLE COST While the aircraft cost only $5.4M, the Life Cycle Cost is $75M! MA4701 Aircraft Design Phil Condit, BOEING CEO 1996 Wright Brothers Lectureship “Today, technology is only one component in the design of an airplane. More and more, our airline customers describe their needs in terms of economics. Their number one priority is for airplanes that are less expensive to own and operate. As a result, our industry is now applying the same kind of creativity and ingenuity to reducing the cost of designing and building airplanes as we do to developing the technology that goes into them.” $32B development cost! MA4701 Aircraft Design https://www.boeing.com/resources/boeingdotcom/market/assets/downloads/2023-Commercial-Market-Outlook-Executive-Summary.pdf A380 VS B787 – EARLY 2000 AIRBUS VS BOEING IN 2000 747 777 767 A330 757 A320 737 HUB AND SPOKE MODEL Hub and spoke airline route structures AIRBUS VS BOEING IN 2005 747 777 767 A330 757 A320 737 AIRBUS VS BOEING IN 2005 747 777 767 A330 757 A320 737 A330 A320 BOEING 787 POINT TO POINT MODEL BOEING 787 – USE OF COMPOSITES Composites (%weight) Source: Hexcel Corp., Aerostrategy MA4701 Aircraft Design  A380 B787  First flight: 27 April 2005  First flight: December 15, 2009  List Unit cost: US$445.6 million  List Unit cost: US$264.6 million  Typical seating: 544  Typical seating: 290  Orders: 251 (2023)  Orders: 1763 (2023)  Program cost: US$29 billion  Stop production in 2021  Program cost: US$32 billion OIL PRICE PASSENGER COMFORT REGIONAL JET/SINGLE AISLE –2010 ON-GOING MARKET DEVELOPMENT PW F135 from F35 (1st flight 2006) PW PurePower (2007) MITSUBISHI (B787 supplier 1st flight 2009) MITSUBISHI REGIONAL JET (2007) MA4701 Aircraft Design ON-GOING MARKET DEVELOPMENT BOMBARDIER CS (2008) COMAC 919 (2008) CFM LEAP (2008) AIRBUS A320 NEO (2009) MA4701 Aircraft Design ON-GOING MARKET DEVELOPMENT BOEING 737 MAX (2011) Embraer E-Jet E2 (2011) MA4701 Aircraft Design  ON-GOING MARKET DEVELOPMENT Bombardier-Boeing dispute Airbus has taken a 50.01 share in the C- series and promised an assembly line for the plane alongside its existing factory in Mobile, Alabama, US. Aircraft renamed as A220. Rumor of 65% discount to Delta Airline ($40M per aircraft) 2017 - U.S. proposed 300 percent tariffs 2018 - U.S. trade panel strikes down 300 percent tariffs MA4701 Aircraft Design ON-GOING MARKET DEVELOPMENT Feb 2023: Cancelled due to high cost of certification and COVID. Sep 2022: C919 is certified. MA4701 Aircraft Design LATEST DEVELOPMENT – MIDSIZE AIRPLANE New Midsize Airplane (NMA) HIGH SPEED RAIL SPEED: 350 km/hr (190 kn) MA4701 Aircraft Design HIGH SPEED RAIL AIR: 4 HR 20 MIN TO AIRPORT: 1 HR WAIT IN AIRPORT: 1 HR FLIGHT TIME: 1 HR 20 MIN FROM AIRPORT: 1 HR $120 HIGH SPEED TRAIN: 4 HR 10 MIN TO STATION: 0.5 HR WAIT IN STATION: 0.5 HR TRAIN TIME: 2 HR 40 MIN FROM STATION: 0.5 HR $70 MA4701 Aircraft Design MA4701 AIRCRAFT DESIGN AIRFOIL SELECTION Dr. Chow Wai Tuck Office: N3.2-02-29 Email: [email protected] AIRFOIL SELECTION AND GEOMETRY  Why is choosing the right airfoil important?  Let’s remind ourselves the parameters describing an airfoil Cruise Speed Aerodynamic Takeoff Efficiency Distance Airfoil Landing Stall distance MA4701 Aircraft Design AIRFOIL SELECTION AND GEOMETRY 𝑳 𝑫 𝟐 𝟐 MA4701 Aircraft Design  AIRFOIL FAMILIES  NACA Airfoils 4- and 5- digit airfoils: Low speed, large LE radius to flatten peak in pressure around the nose NACA-6: high critical Mach number (transonic flight), laminar airfoil Good for high-speed wings  High Lift Airfoils Simple and multisection  Supercritical Airfoils Useful for commercial aircraft Delaying of critical Mach number Harris, C.D., 1990. NASA Supercritical Airfoils, NASA Technical Paper 2969  Thin airfoils Supersonic Raymer D.P: Aircraft Design: A Conceptual Approach MA4701 Aircraft Design AIRFOIL DESIGN  Airfoils are optimized for a specific characteristic: High maximum lift Low drag at low lift coefficients Low drag at high lift coefficients Cd Low pitching moments, Low drag in the transonic region Cl Favorable lift characteristics beyond the critical Mach number C m a a MA4701 Aircraft Design  Cd Cl Cm a  STALL CHARACTERISTICS Airfoil shape defines stall characteristics Thick airfoils:  Round leading edge  Thickness > 14%  Stall starts from trailing edge moving forward  Gradual loss of Cl, small variation in Cm Thin airfoils:  Thickness b/w 6% and 14%  Stall starts from leading edge  At small a, separated flow will reattach  At high a flow will not reattach  immediate loss in lift, abrupt change in Cm MA4701 Aircraft Design  STALL CHARACTERISTICS  Thin and very thin airfoils Leading edge devices (slats, LE- flaps, etc…)  Correlation to wing design: Direct relation airfoil/wing stall for high AR unswept wings For lower AR and swept wings 3-D effects dominate stall characteristics Airfoil stall properties not of great impact MA4701 Aircraft Design  B787 VS F35 Pitching moment: Horizontal tail and canard are directly effected by magnitude of Cm of wing MA4701 Aircraft Design NACA 6-SERIES AIRFOILS (WWII)  Optimum for high-speed wing design  Mean camber lines designed for uniform chordwise pressure loading Up to a defined location along the chordline Decrease linearly to zero at the trailing edge  NACA 653-218: 6: denotes the 6-series 5: chordwise position of Cp,min measured in 1/10th of chord for symmetric thickness section at zero-lift 3: range of lift coeffs. in 1/10th, above and below the design lift coeff. CL,des for which a favorable pressure gradient exists on both upper and lower surface and drag is lowest 2: CL,des multiplied by 10; CL,des = 0.2 18: thickness in percent chord MA4701 Aircraft Design NACA 66-012 LAMINAR SYMMETRIC AIRFOIL (WWII) 2 pi  p  C p  pi , p ,  , U    U 2 CMAC = 0 Very high leading edge velocity when CL increases Linear Favourable pressure gradient pressure (dp/dx Larger nose radius -> higher astall and Clmax  Higher t/c -> more wet surface -> higher drag  Higher t/c -> more divergent curvature -> higher flow separation Clmax Cd Raymer D.P: Aircraft Design: A Conceptual Approach MA4701 Aircraft Design THICKNESS RATIO  Structural weight: Wing structural weight is approximately inversely proportional to square root of thickness ratio Wing is ~ 25% of Wempty  Thickness can vary from root to tip Structural weight reduction Increased volume at root (for fuel and landing gear) Wing root airfoil: Wing tip airfoil: thicker at root MA4701 Aircraft Design THICKNESS RATIO  Impact on Mcr: Supercritical airfoil delay shock formation Reduction of drag for a given thickness Advantage: improved wing aerodynamic for commercial transports ~ 10% thicker than comparable “traditional” airfoil used in historical trends Raymer D.P: Aircraft Design: A Conceptual Approach Raymer D.P: Aircraft Design: A Conceptual Approach MA4701 Aircraft Design  NACA 6-SERIES & SUPERCRITICAL AIRFOILS  NACA 63 Series Favorable stall characteristics Advisable for turboprop  NACA 64 Series Optimized for cruise speed 0.74>0.30; Kt < 2 MA4701 Aircraft Design LOADS REFERENCE: FAR 25 Chap 11, Advanced Aircraft Design by Egbert Torenbeek 2013 Chap 3, Airframe Structural Design - Practical Design Information and Data on Aircraft Structures by Michael Niu  STRUCTURES LOAD – FAR 25  Flight Maneuver & Gust (25.331 - 25.351)  Ground Loads (25.471 - 25.519) Landing loads Ground handling loads Taxi & ground maneuver Towing loads Jacking & tie-down loads  Control Surface & System Loads (25.391 - 25.459)  Emergency Landing Conditions (25.561 - 25.563) Source: FAA MA4701 Aircraft Design MANEUVER LOADS  Maneuver Design Load Factors V-n diagram VA lbf or 22 tons lbf WMTO in lbf, see Page 77 of “Airframe structural design” by Michael Niu for sample calculation. MA4701 Aircraft Design GUST ENVELOPE  Gust Design Load Factors VB is the design speed for maximum V-n diagram gust intensity and is the point where a gust of 20 m/s would cause the aircraft to stall Initial Estimate: VB = ½(VS1+VC) VC is the design cruise speed (with gust velocity of 15 m/s) VD is the highest speed achieved following an upset at VC (7.5 deg dive for 20 s and then a 1.5g pull up) MA4701 Aircraft Design GUST ENVELOPE V MA4701 Aircraft Design GUST ENVELOPE See Page 77 of “Airframe structural design” by Michael Niu for sample calculation. MA4701 Aircraft Design ROLLER COASTER Dodonpa: the highest launch acceleration, 2.7 g MA4701 Aircraft Design PROOF OF STRUCTURE  Requirement (FAR 25.301 thru 25.307) Limit load (maximum loads to be expected in service) No detrimental permanent deformation Deflections may not interfere with safe operation Ultimate load (1.5 X Limit Load) Structure must be able to support the load for 3 seconds Dynamic testing may be used MA4701 Aircraft Design EMERGENCY LANDING CONDITIONS – FAR 25.561/25.562  Design Load Factors Up - 3.0g Forward - 9.0g Sideward - 3.0g for airframe, 4.0g for seats Downward - 6.0g Aft - 1.5g  Dynamic Conditions for Seats “16 g seats” MA4701 Aircraft Design EMERGENCY LANDING CONDITIONS MA4701 Aircraft Design  A380 Wing Span 80m FASTENERS AND STRUCTURAL JOINTS REFERENCE: FAA ADVISORY CIRCULAR 43.13 Chap 7, Airframe Structural Design - Practical Design Information and Data on Aircraft Structures by Michael Niu SOLID RIVET MA4701 Aircraft Design BLIND RIVET MA4701 Aircraft Design  COUNTERSUNK RIVET Dimple Countersunk MA4701 Aircraft Design HI-LOK FASTENER MA4701 Aircraft Design RIVET HOLE SPACING AND EDGE DISTANCE FOR SINGLE-LAP SHEET SPLICES ULTIMATE STRENGTH FATIGUE STRENGTH Baseline MA4701 Aircraft Design splice FASTERNER STRESS CONCENTRATION MA4701 Aircraft Design back LOAD DISTRIBUTION ON LAP SPLICE UNIFORM THICKNESS STEPPED THICKNESS MA4701 Aircraft Design AIR TRACTOR AT-502A (2000)  The airplane was spraying chemicals on a field of crops when the left wing separated in flight  The left wing's lower spar cap was found to have fractured in fatigue in 3,000 flight hours  CAUSE: The fatigue failure and in-flight separation of the left wing due to the manufacturer's underestimation during the aircraft design process of the time interval from fatigue crack initiation to failure, and, the manufacturer's subsequent specification of an inadequate inspection interval. MA4701 Aircraft Design AIR TRACTOR AT-502A (2000) OLD DESIGN NEW DESIGN MA4701 Aircraft Design VIDEO ON STRUCTURES TRAINING Aircraft Structures Technician https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=O15WOyF9c2E FATIGUE SAFE LIFE ANALYSIS – CRACK INITIATION S-N CURVE MA4701 Aircraft Design DAMAGE TOLERANCE REQUIREMENTS - FAR 25.571  Up to 1956: CAR 4b.316: required fatigue evaluations and retirement– Safe-Life  Crashes of two Comet 1 in 1954 Adoption CAR 4b.270 (1956)- Fail-Safe supplementing safe-life as an option  Crash of 707-300 in May 1977 in Lusaka Adoption FAR 25.571 Amendment 45 (1978): dropping fail-safe and adopting Damage Tolerance requirements while maintaining safe-life  Aloha 737-200 incident in May 1988 in Maui New rulemaking to adopt Limit of Validity MA4701 Aircraft Design  COMET 1 (1954 ) Known Issues, Tragic Result © Certified for 16,000 flights G-ALYP had made 1,290 pressurised flights G-ALYY had made 900 pressurised flights MA4701 Aircraft Design FUSELAGE TEAR STRAP – FAIL SAFE MA4701 Aircraft Design FATIGUE DESIGN PHILOSOPHY MA4701 Aircraft Design BOEING 707 (1977) FAIL SAFE DESIGN (2 CHORD DESIGN) Cracked at top chord of rear right spar Fault not detected due to its location Load transfer to middle chord Middle chord cracked -> loss of aircraft MA4701 Aircraft Design BOEING 707 (1977) MA4701 Aircraft Design DAMAGE TOLERANCE ANALYSIS Stress determination using finite element tools Collection of load spectrum Stress intensity calculation Crack growth analysis MA4701 Aircraft Design DAMAGE TOLERANCE ANALYSIS - CRACK GROWTH MA4701 Aircraft Design VIDEO ON BOEING 787 FATIGUE TEST Boeing 787 conducts fatigue testing https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=TH9k9fWaFrs APPENDIX V-N DIAGRAM FOR BOEING 767 MA4701 Aircraft Design  V-N DIAGRAM FOR A320 http://www.dtic.mil/dtic/tr/fulltext/u2/a406060.pdf http://www.tc.faa.gov/its/worldpac/techrpt/ar 02-35.pdf MA4701 Aircraft Design MA4701 AIRCRAFT DESIGN STRUCTURES AND LOAD II Dr. Chow Wai Tuck Office: N3.2-02-29 Email: [email protected] TABLE OF CONTENTS  WING DESIGN  FUSELAGE DESIGN MA4701 Aircraft Design WING DESIGN REFERENCE: Chap 8, Airframe Structural Design - Practical Design Information and Data on Aircraft Structures by Michael Niu Development and Application of a Comprehensive, Design-Sensitive Weight Prediction Method for Wing Structures for Transport Category Aircraft by Egbert Torenbeek WING GEOMETRY MA4701 Aircraft Design  WING LOADING - LIFT Moment Load span Lift distribution Note: The load is only taken by the wing box. The leading and trailing edges do span not contribute to the wing stiffness. MA4701 Aircraft Design WING LOADING – FUEL TANKS MA4701 Aircraft Design WING LOADING – ULTIMATE DESIGN STRESS 1 ksi = 6.895 MPa (-386 MPa) (310 MPa) MA4701 Aircraft Design  WING – MATERIAL (METAL) Lower skin Upper skin 1 ksi = 6.895 MPa MA4701 Aircraft Design WING SPAR Typical spar cap sections Typical spar constructions MA4701 Aircraft Design WING SPAR – FAIL SAFE MA4701 Aircraft Design WING SPAR – FAIL SAFE Airbus A310 front and rear spars MA4701 Aircraft Design WING LOADING - OTHERS MA4701 Aircraft Design WING STRINGERS MA4701 Aircraft Design WING RIBS MA4701 Aircraft Design A380 WING RIB CRACKS (2012) MA4701 Aircraft Design A380 WING RIB CRACKS (2012) Cause: Aluminum alloy (7449) saved weight, but more brittle, causing cracking. Hybrid design – carbon composites with aluminum - failing to account for temperature-induced material expansion and contraction during operations. MA4701 Aircraft Design VIDEO BOEING 747 WING Building Boeing 747-8 Full Documentary - Worlds Longest Airliner https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=c26y2-j5KrY&t=30s 16:40s ADDITIONAL VIDEOS Airbus A380 - Wing Construction - HD https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=LpSgj-tKelY BBC How to Build A Super Jumbo Wing https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=PF6ZuBDlNjY MA4701 Aircraft Design FUSELAGE DESIGN REFERENCE: Chap 11, Airframe Structural Design - Practical Design Information and Data on Aircraft Structures by Michael Niu PRESSURE LOAD Boeing 787: 13,100 m (43,000 ft) Pressure: 14.8 kPa (2.1 psi) Mount Everest: 8,800 m (29,000 ft) Pressure: 75.2 kPa (10.9 psi) MA4701 Aircraft Design PRESSURE LOAD MA4701 Aircraft Design FUSELAGE – FRAME AND LONGERON MA4701 Aircraft Design FUSELAGE – BOEING 737 MA4701 Aircraft Design PASSENGER FLOOR DESIGN MA4701 Aircraft Design ALOHA AIRLINES, BOEING 737 (1988) explosive decompression at 24,000 feet 35,496 flight hours and 89,680 flight cycles 1 flight attendant died 65 injured Failure of the maintenance program to detect the presence of significant disbonding and fatigue damage MA4701 Aircraft Design DAMAGE TOLERANCE - LIMIT OF VALIDITY MA4701 Aircraft Design ALOHA AIRLINES, BOEING 737 (1988) crack Original design Newer design MA4701 Aircraft Design SOUTHWEST AIRLINES (2011) crack MA4701 Aircraft Design SOUTHWEST AIRLINES (2011) while climbing through FL344 to reach FL360,[a loud bang was heard No fatalities, 2 injured 48,748 total hours with 39,786 total cycles 10 of the 58 lower-row rivets were oversized the rivet holes in the upper and lower skins were found to be slightly offset relative to each other Rivet holes not circular but slightly oval MA4701 Aircraft Design MA4701 AIRCRAFT DESIGN STRUCTURES AND LOAD III Dr. Chow Wai Tuck Office: N3.2-02-29 Email: [email protected] TABLE OF CONTENTS  BUCKLING  COMPOSITES  FINITE ELEMENT MODELING MA4701 Aircraft Design BUCKLING REFERENCE: Chap 5, Airframe Structural Design - Practical Design Information and Data on Aircraft Structures by Michael Niu BEAM COLUMN BUCKLING MA4701 Aircraft Design Local Buckling BUCKLING PANEL Fuselage Wing Box MA4701 Aircraft Design BUCKLING OF THIN PLATE where = 3.6 for Universal Head Rivet = 0.9 for Countersunk rivet MA4701 Aircraft Design SKIN STRINGER PANEL MA4701 Aircraft Design SKIN STRESS DISTRIBUTION BETWEEN STRINGERS MA4701 Aircraft Design LOCAL BUCKLING MA4701 Aircraft Design Euler Buckling SHORT AND INTERMEDIATE COLUMN BUCKLING MA4701 Aircraft Design CRIPPLING STRESS Conversion Factor: 1 ksi = 6.894 MPa MA4701 Aircraft Design COMPOSITE STRUCTURE SUBSTANTIATION APPROACH  STRUCTURAL MATERIAL : B787 Source: Boeing MA4701 Aircraft Design  VARTM (VACUUM-ASSISTED RESIN TRANSFER MOLDING) Source: MRJ MA4701 Aircraft Design SUBSTANTIATION APPROACH - AC20-107B Aircraft Wing Helicopter Rotor Blade MA4701 Aircraft Design  SUBSTANTIATION APPROACH - AC20-107B Source: MRJ MA4701 Aircraft Design DAMAGE TOLERANCE EVALUATION - AC20-107B small delamination, porosity, small scratches, gouges, and minor environmental damage visible impact damage (VID), deep gouges or scratches, detectable delamination MA4701 Aircraft Design  SUB-COMPONENT TESTING SOURCE: NASA/CR-2011-216880 MA4701 Aircraft Design  NASA - PULTRUDED ROD STITCHED EFFICIENT UNITIZED STRUCTURE (PRSEUS) SOURCE: NASA/CR-2011-216880 MA4701 Aircraft Design  SUB-COMPONENT TESTING – DAMAGE TOLERANCE BVID using 20 ft-lbs of impact energy Localized failure at impacted region after 3P SOURCE: NASA/CR-2011-216880 Damage arrested by stitching on stringer web MA4701 Aircraft Design  SUB-COMPONENT TESTING – DAMAGE PROGRESSION DAMAGE PROGRESSION SOURCE: NASA/CR-2011-216880 MA4701 Aircraft Design  COMPRESSION PANEL TEST SET-UP SOURCE: NASA/CR-2011-216880 MA4701 Aircraft Design VIDEO ON A350 COMPOSITE Airbus A350 Upper Wing and Fuselage Panel Construction at Airbus Stade Plant https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=QpCH9mUUEnY FINITE ELEMENT MODELING MA4701 Aircraft Design ANSYS MA4701 Aircraft Design ANSYS MA4701 Aircraft Design FINITE ELEMENT METHOD  GEOMETRIC NONLINEARITY Large Strain, Large Deflection MA4701 Aircraft Design FINITE ELEMENT METHOD  NONLINEAR MATERIAL MODELS Plasticity, Creep, Impact Newton-Raphson iterative analysis MA4701 Aircraft Design FINITE ELEMENT METHOD  CONTACT MODELS MA4701 Aircraft Design FINITE ELEMENT METHOD  TOPOLOGY OPTIMIZATION MA4701 Aircraft Design  TOPOLOGY OPTIMIZATION SOURCE: HyperWorks MA4701 Aircraft Design REFERENCES Airframe Structural Design Composite Airframe Structures by by Michael Niu Michael Niu MA4701 Aircraft Design REFERENCES https://www.faa.gov/regulations_policies/ handbooks_manuals/aviation/ MA4701 Aircraft Design WRIGHT BROTHERS MA4701 Aircraft Design MA4701 AIRCRAFT DESIGN INTRODUCTION Dr. Chow Wai Tuck Office: N3.2-02-29 Email: [email protected] TABLE OF CONTENTS  Your lecturers  Lecture schedule  Design Project  Team formation  Milestone report and grade  Assessment Criteria MA4701 Aircraft Design LECTURERS Dr Chow Wai Tuck Prof James Wang Ming MA4701 Aircraft Design SCHEDULE Week Lecture topics Lecturer 1 Introduction, History of Aircraft Design CWT Online Design Process, Cost Analysis CWT 2 Airfoil, Wing Design CWT 3 Aerodynamics Drag CWT 4 Propulsion/Structures and Loads I CWT Optional (Online) Workshop: Geometry Design CWT Optional (Online) Workshop: Structural Analysis CWT Optional (Online) Structures and Loads II & III CWT 5 High Lift Device, Tail Design, Stability and Control JW 6 Airworthiness JW 7 Weight Analysis, Flight Performance JW Recess 8 Aircraft Systems JW 9 Rotorcraft JW 21 hours of required lectures + 8 hours of optional lectures (not tested in CA Quiz) Student request – Lectures to be completed by Week 9 (one month before Revision). Hence, the lecture series is heavier at the start but ends earlier. Physical workshop on Week 2 - 4, Friday 1:30 – 3:30pm in CAE Lab 1, N3-B3b-05. MA4701 Aircraft Design  MILESTONES & GRADES Week Milestone Grade % Date Day Time Phase 1 Report 3 5 30-Aug FRI 2359 (Grp 100%) 5 CA Quiz 1 10 14-Sep SAT 1100 Phase 2 Report/Participation 6 5 20-Sep FRI 2359 (Grp 50%, Ind 50%) Phase 3 Report/Participation 9 10 18-Oct FRI 2359 (Grp 50%, Ind 50%) 10 CA Quiz 2 10 26-Oct SAT 1100 Final report/Peer 12 Review/Participation 45 8-Nov FRI 2359 (Grp 50%, Ind 50%) Final Presentation 13 15 Wk 13 Tutorial (Grp 100%) Total 100 Two CAs (CA1 and CA2) will be conducted with Respondus lockdown and monitor. Tutorial attendance is mandatory. MA4701 Aircraft Design DESIGN PROJECT  Team decide the aircraft to be designed  Must be a civilian fixed wing transport  Carry out market analysis review, find the gap 20 years in the future  Definition of mission specifications  No UAV, helicopter or VTOL MA4701 Aircraft Design TEAM FORMATION  Team members (7) : From the same tutorial group. Names list by end of 1st tutorial session.  Select a POC (Point of contact) for emails, enquires and submissions, Always state your team/company name in your correspondence.  Team or Company name and logo (easy to remember)  Team/Company organisation structure and who is doing what MA4701 Aircraft Design DEFINITION DESIGN decide upon the functions of an equipment by making a detailed drawing of it. MA4701 Aircraft Design NEGATIVE EXAMPLE  FOCUS ON ANALYSIS BUT NO DESIGN! DIAMETER = 0.545463 m MA4701 Aircraft Design POSITIVE EXAMPLE Aero Race (GIANT PROPEL ADVANCED SL 0-DA DI2) every tube shape and angle is optimized for minimal drag composite frame is stiff and efficient yet still superlight composite frame with drag reduction composite wheel system WHILE INNOVATIVE FEATURES ARE ENCOURAGED, PLEASE LOOK AT ALL THE DETAILS! MA4701 Aircraft Design CATEGORY AIRCRAFT DESIGN CATEGORY TRANSPORT NORMAL ACROBATIC FIGHTER Airplane Glider Lighter- than-Air MA4701 Aircraft Design SPECIFICATION TRANSPORT AIRCRAFT  Speed  Range  Payload Number of passengers Cargo payload  Passenger Comfort  Airfield  Certification Requirement Structures loads Take off/Landing requirement  Target Unit Cost MA4701 Aircraft Design TRANSLATE SPECIFICATION TO GENERAL CHARACTERISTICS/PERFORMANCE Antonov An-225 Performance  Maximum speed: 850 km/h (528 mph; 459 kn)  Cruise speed: 800 km/h (497 mph; 432 kn)  Maximum Range: 15,400 km (9,569 mi; 8,315 nmi) with maximum fuel  Payload: 200 tonnes payload with 4,000 km (2,500 mi) range  Service ceiling: 11,000 m (36,000 ft)  Wing loading (W/S): 662.9 kg/m2 (135.8 lb/sq ft)  Thrust/weight (T/W): 0.234 MA4701 Aircraft Design TRANSLATE SPECIFICATION TO GENERAL CHARACTERISTICS/PERFORMANCE Antonov An-225 General characteristics  Crew: 6  Length: 84 m (275 ft 7 in)  Wingspan: 88.4 m (290 ft 0 in)  Height: 18.1 m (59 ft 5 in)  Wing area: 905 m2 (9,740 sq ft)  Aspect ratio: 8.6  Empty weight: 285,000 kg (628,317 lb)  Max takeoff weight: 640,000 kg (1,410,958 lb)  Fuel capacity: 300,000 kg  Cargo hold: volume 1,300 m3 (46,000 cu ft)  Powerplant: 6 x Progress D-18T turbofans, 229.5 kN (51,600 lbf) thrust each MA4701 Aircraft Design RULES OF THE GAME  Groups: Groups of 7 people  Commercial Transport Business Jet, Regional Jet, Narrow body, and Wide body etc  Basic design (Phase Report requirement)  You should try to address 2-3 topics in detail Design topics Wing performance Tail performance Cabin lay-out Landing gear Structures design of wing Structures design of fuselage Technology topics Composite Material Hybrid Laminar Flow Engine technology Electrical/Hybrid Engine Phase 1 MA4701 Aircraft Design ASSESSMENT CRITERIA  MEETING AIRCRAFT DESIGN SPECIFICATIONS  INTEGRATE MULTI-DISCIPLINARY REQUIREMENT  TRADE-OFFS/ITERATIONS STUDY  TEAM/PROJECT MANAGEMENT  PRESENTATION/REPORT MA4701 Aircraft Design PROJECT MANAGEMENT MA4701 Aircraft Design SUPPLEMENTARY OBJECTIVES  CUSTOMER ORIENTATED  LEARN FROM TEXTBOOKS  SYSTEM THINKING – TRADE-OFF  SKILL SET DEVELOPMENT MA4701 Aircraft Design SKILL SET DEVELOPMENT Labelled as Penang’s “Char Kway Teow King” MA4701 Aircraft Design UNITS  SI units would be used in the course as much as possible  International Navigation Conventions are introduced Speed – knots Distance – nautical miles Height – feet (FL300)  Available Empirical Formula tends to be in Imperial Units  Most Aerospace Companies uses Imperial Units Imperial Units – Boeing, GE, PW, RR SI Units - Airbus MA4701 Aircraft Design  TEXTBOOK Aircraft design : a Advanced aircraft Airframe structural conceptual approach design design by by by Daniel P. Raymer Egbert Torenbeek Michael Niu MA4701 Aircraft Design AIAA DESIGN COMPETITION  UNDERGRADUATE TEAM AIRCRAFT DESIGN COMPETITION https://www.aiaa.org/get-involved/students-educators/Design- Competitions/2022-2023-design-competition-winning-reports  DESIGN/BUILD/FLY COMPETITION https://www.aiaa.org/dbf/previous-competitions MA4701 Aircraft Design TEAM ORGANIZATION MA4701 Aircraft Design JOBS OPENING BOEING AERODYNAMICS 3% CONTROL 8% STRUCTURES/AIRFRAME 22% SYSTEM DESIGN 3% THERMAL 8% MATERIALS PROCESS 11% PRODUCTION 44% PRATT & WHITNEY STRUCTURES 9% PROJECT 13% MECHANICAL DESIGN 29% PRODUCTION 36% REPAIR 13% MA4701 Aircraft Design ENGINEERING DRAWING – P51 MUSTANG MA4701 Aircraft Design MATRIX OF KNOWLEDGE Donald Rumsfeld in 2002 US Secretary of Defense MA4701 Aircraft Design COACH MA4701 Aircraft Design  WHO MOVED MY CHEESE? https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=jOUeHPS8A8g MA4701 Aircraft Design  BOEING ENGINEERS SET A NEW RECORD FOR PAPER PLANE FLIGHT DISTANCE Dillon Ruble and Garrett Jensen, two engineers working at Boeing, broke a record in December that had only a little to do with their day jobs: They set a new world record for farthest flight by a paper aircraft, sending a sheet of paper 88.318 meters, or almost 290 feet. After nearly 500 hours of origami folding and studying aerodynamics, the final paper plane design was put to the test on December 2, 2022 https://jalopnik.com/boeing-engineers- set-a-new-record-for-paper-plane-fligh- 1850157043 https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Cbh1cNA 0W2A&ab_channel=GWRKIDS MA4701 Aircraft Design APPENDIX PHASE 1 REPORT (ELEVATOR PITCH)  Tell us your chosen aircraft specification-area of focus  Group Organisation  Review of Chosen Designs  First hand-drawn/CAD sketch  First Sizing  Airfoil Design  Plan of action for Weeks 3 to 12 activities  Suggested Report – 5 pages MA4701 Aircraft Design PHASE 2 REPORT  Main Focus: Aircraft mission and conceptual configuration,  Detailed Market analysis, sizing  Airfoil definition and analysis  Aircraft Specifications, Mission Profile and applicable Regulations  Cabin Layout/ Baggage Compartment / Fuselage interior and external Geometry  Wing Area S and Engine Thrust T  Wing Design: Planform S, b, AR, Λ, λ, Airfoil, Winglet  First sketches of aircraft and CAD of wings  Suggested Report – 10 pages  List the contributor (only 1) for each segments MA4701 Aircraft Design PHASE 3 REPORT  Aircraft Data (geometry & other) including 3 views  Tabulated Aircraft Data with Analysis  Wing Design: HLD and Ailerons  Aircraft Pay Load and Mission Fuel Weight fraction (L/D, TSFC)  Take Off Weight Estimation  Constraint Analysis and Optimum (W/S), (T/W)  Aircraft Sizing  Fuel Volume in Wing vis-a-vis Mission Fuel  Allowances for growth  Horizontal Tail and Fin Geometry (S, b, AR, Λ, λ, Airfoil, Elevator, Rudder)  Suggested Report – 25 pages  List the contributor (only 1) for each segments Back MA4701 Aircraft Design FINAL REPORT & PRESENTATION  Peer Review to be completed through NTULearn before the final presentations  Summary of Phase 1, 2 & 3 results (follow final report coverage) Moment coefficient slope diagram Payload Range diagram V-n diagram  Use Tables, Figures, 3 Views, Pi charts, Bar charts, Plots etc. in giving final results.  Give comparison of your data with Reference Aircraft data - highlighting USPs (Unique Selling Point) of your design  Design Compliance: FAR  Suggested Report – 100 pages  List the contributor (only 1) for each segments Back MA4701 Aircraft Design MA4701 AIRCRAFT DESIGN HISTORY OF AIRCRAFT DESIGN Dr. Chow Wai Tuck Email: [email protected] HISTORY OF AIRCRAFT DESIGN Milestones in aircraft design from aviation infancy to the modern day and age  Wright Brothers – First Flight  First 10 years  1920s – now  Future aircraft design MA4701 Aircraft Design WRIGHT FLYER (1903) Wright Brothers: Wilbur (1867) and Orville (1871) How did two bicycle mechanics from Dayton, Ohio (population 85k) invented aviation? MA4701 Aircraft Design  WRIGHT FAMILY Milton Susan Both shared a love of learning for the sake of learning. Their home had two libraries — the first consisted of books on theology, the second was a large, varied collection. Wright brothers' home at 7 Susan had Hawthorn Street, Dayton about considerable 1900. Wilbur and Orville built the mechanical aptitude. covered wrap-around porch in the 1890s. Orville Wilbur 1871 1867 MA4701 Aircraft Design WRIGHT BROTHERS – EARLY YEARS In 1888, at the age of 17 years old, Orville started his printing company. Wilbur later joined him. Wilbur opened a bicycle shop in 1892. Orville later joined him. MA4701 Aircraft Design  START OF THE AVIATION DREAM - 1896 The Wrights take an interest in the "flying problem" after hearing of the flight of Samuel Langley's unmanned "Aerodrome" and the death of glider pilot Otto Lilienthal. http://www.wright-brothers.org/History_Wing/Wright_Story/Wright_Timeline/Wright_Timeline_1890_1899.htm MA4701 Aircraft Design CONTROLS AND AIRFOIL CONTROLS: AIRFOIL TWIST WILBUR (1899) WIND TUNNEL:AIRFOIL EXPERIMENT (1901) MA4701 Aircraft Design PROPULSION MA4701 Aircraft Design PROPELLER AND ENGINE WOOD PROPELLER BASED ON AIRFOIL EXPERIMENT HORIZONTAL 4-CYLINDER, WATER-COOLED, 12 HORSEPOWER FIRST ALUMINUM CRANKCASE MANUFACTURING MA4701 Aircraft Design STRUCTURE Wing rib construction Unlike the solid of the earlier gliders, the ribs were built up from two thin strips of ash with small blocks in between. Double layer fabric covering Refined the wings by covering the bottom surfaces with fabric. This resulted in a smoother overall wing surface, which enhanced its aerodynamic efficiency. The fabric applied on the direction of the weave at a 45-degree angle to increase the stiffness of the wings. Wing struts Supported the middle of the wing struts with a fine wire, secured on both sides so the struts would not flex under flight loads. To achieve the same strength without the wire would have required thicker, heavier struts. https://airandspace.si.edu/exhibitions/wright-brothers/online/fly/1903/construction.cfm MA4701 Aircraft Design FLIGHT TEST No 1 Glider 1900 No 3 Glider 1902 Flyer 1903 Spot the Differences: aspect ratio, control surfaces, structures, engine MA4701 Aircraft Design WRIGHT BROTHERS  Design  Manufacturing MA4701 Aircraft Design  HISTORY OF AIRCRAFT DESIGN – 1ST 10 YEARS  1903 Wright Flyer First Flight  1909 Bleriot Model XI First aircraft with tractor “engine in front” design  1910 Henri Fabre Hydravion First seaplane  1911 Deperdussin Monocoque First aircraft to use a stress-skin shell structure (in wood)  1913 Sikorsky Ilya Muromets Comfortable enclosed passenger cabin MA4701 Aircraft Design HISTORY OF AIRCRAFT DESIGN – WWI 1914-1918  World War I  Biplanes, triplanes, all sorts of crazy designs All in search of maneuverability First “long range” bombers Most notable development: synchronized machine gun/propeller Most aircraft skins in cloth MA4701 Aircraft Design HISTORY OF AIRCRAFT DESIGN – 1920S  1919 Junker F13/J13 Thick wings for improved airfoil First cantilever wing First low wing aircraft First all metal aircraft  1920 Zeppelin Staaken Wing High Tapered Torsion box spar Leading edge engine Stressed metal skin  1925 Baumer Sausewind Extremely streamline aircraft First elliptic wing design MA4701 Aircraft Design HISTORY OF AIRCRAFT DESIGN – 1930S  Douglas DC-1 (DC-2 and DC-3) First “scientifically designed” aircraft All-metal, multi-cell structure Advanced aerodynamics Wing-fuselage fillets Wing flaps Refined engine cowling Controlled pitch propellers Semi-Monocoque Retractable landing gear  Lockheed XC-35 Pressurized cabin H tail MA4701 Aircraft Design HISTORY OF AIRCRAFT DESIGN – 1940S  World War II The jet engine The swept wing The radar / air navigation systems MA4701 Aircraft Design  HISTORY OF AIRCRAFT DESIGN – 1950S  The De Havilland Comet First commercial jet aircraft “Discovered” the oval window Wing-sunk engines  Boeing 367-08 Defined the shape of almost ALL modern commercial airliners Swept wing Pylon mounted engines  Sud Aviation Caravelle Rear mounted engines Mid-Tail First short/medium range passenger jet  Douglas DC-8 Six-abreast seating MA4701 Aircraft Design HISTORY OF AIRCRAFT DESIGN – 1960S  Vickers-Armstrongs VC10 Example of “customer driven aircraft” Rear-engine quad layout  Hawker Trident First 3-engine passenger jet  Boeing 737 Best selling modern airliner  Boeing 747 First double decker design  Aérospatiale/BAC Concorde First (and only) supersonic commercial transport ever to enter service MA4701 Aircraft Design HISTORY OF AIRCRAFT DESIGN – 1970S AND 1980S  1970s Lockheed TriStar and Douglas DC-10 Airbus A300  1980s Boeing 757,767 Airbus A320 family started First fly-by-wire jetliner Stick control MA4701 Aircraft Design  HISTORY OF AIRCRAFT DESIGN – 1990S AND 2000S  1990s Boeing 777 First twin engine transatlantic aircraft Large use of composite materials Designed using computer aided design A330 Conceptual design started in the 1970s with the A300 Technology from all Airbus families Was the most efficient aircraft (operating cost) of its class Beluga Class transport aircraft  2000s A380 Biggest in the world Integrated modular avionics (military type) MA4701 Aircraft Design HISTORY OF AIRCRAFT DESIGN - 2010S  Boeing 787 Dreamliner Primary material: composites (50%) Raked winglets Chevron noise reducing nacelles  Airbus A350XWB Composite fuselage and wing Advanced high-lift devices (limited morphing wing)  Bombardier C300 (Airbus 220) Composite fuselage and wing MA4701 Aircraft Design HISTORY OF AIRCRAFT DESIGN - ONGOING  Mitsubishi SpaceJet – cancelled due to COVID19  COMAC C919 – certified on Sep 2022 MA4701 Aircraft Design FUTURE OF AIRCRAFT DESIGN What next ????? MA4701 Aircraft Design FUTURE OF AIRCRAFT DESIGN Smart materials Open rotor engines Passive Flow Control MA4701 Aircraft Design