Child Psych Finals PDF

₍ᐢ. ༝.ᐢ₎ CHILD PSYCHOLOGY ૮₍˶. ⑅₎ა ♡ PRE-SCHOOL The Changing Demographics of Childhood Increasing diversity of family structures More single parents Case studies of severe early deprivation Prolonged neg...

₍ᐢ. ༝.ᐢ₎ CHILD PSYCHOLOGY ૮₍˶. ⑅₎ა ♡ PRE-SCHOOL The Changing Demographics of Childhood Increasing diversity of family structures More single parents Case studies of severe early deprivation Prolonged neglect, abuse, and isolation ○ Abandonment and emotional-social deprivation ○ Institutionalization and severe deprivation Reactive Attachment Disorder ○ Reactive attachment disorder (RAD) is a condition where a child doesn't form healthy emotional bonds with their caretakers (parental figures), often because of emotional neglect or abuse at an early age. RAD related videos: What is Reactive Attachment Disorder and how is it treated? Temperament & its Classifications Temperament involves individual differences in behavioral styles, emotions, and characteristic ways of responding. With regard to its link to emotion, temperament refers to individual differences in: how quickly the emotion is shown, how strong it is, how long it lasts, and how quickly it fades away Kagan has found that inhibition shows considerable stability from infancy through early childhood 1. Chess and Thomas’ Classification Three basic types, or clusters, of temperament: Easy child: is generally in a positive mood, quickly establishes regular routines in infancy, and adapts easily to new experiences. ○ The easy child has regular sleep and feeding schedules, approaches new situations (such as a new food, a new school, or a stranger) with enthusiasm and adapts easily to them, and is generally cheerful. It is obvious why such a child is relatively easy for parents to raise. Some children are more inconsistent and show a mixture of temperament traits. For example, a toddler may have a pleasant disposition but be 1  frightened of new situations. Difficult child: reacts negatively and cries frequently, engages in irregular daily routines, and is slow to accept change. ○ The difficult child, on the other hand, has irregular sleep and feeding schedules, is slow to accept new people and situations, takes a long time to adjust to new routines, and responds to frustrations with tantrums and loud crying. Parents find this type of child more difficult to deal with. Slow-to-warm-up child: has a low activity level, is somewhat negative, and displays a low intensity of mood. ○ The slow-to-warm-up child falls somewhere between the other two. These children have somewhat irregular sleep and feeding patterns and do not react as strongly as difficult children. They initially respond negatively to new experiences and adapt slowly, only after repeated exposure. In their longitudinal investigation, Chess and Thomas found that 40 percent of the children they studied could be classified as easy, 10 percent as difficult, and 15 percent as slow to warm up. Notice that 35 percent did not fit any of the three patterns Let’s do some self-exploration: So we have two terms/traits: Inhibited: Sensitive, cautious, quiet, avoidant, withdrawn, wary Uninhibited: Fearless, motivated to approach novel situations, bold 2. Kagan’s Behavioral Inhibition Another way of classifying temperament focuses on the differences between a shy, subdued, timid child (INHIBITED) and a sociable, extraverted, bold child (UNINHIBITED). Kagan regards shyness with strangers (peers or adults) as one feature of a broad temperament category called inhibition to the unfamiliar (Kagan’s term to refer to how a child copes with new situations). Behavioral inhibition is a temperamental construct that characterizes children who tend to respond strongly to novel objects, situations, and people with wariness. Inhibited children react to many aspects of unfamiliarity with initial avoidance, distress, or subdued affect. In other words, children with an inhibited temperament are cautious, restrained and even fearful in response to unfamiliar people, objects and situations. Core feature – intolerance of uncertainty Beginning at about 7 to 9 months of age. Kagan has found that inhibition shows considerable stability from infancy through early childhood ‘Behavioral inhibition to the unfamiliar’ is a term introduced by Kagan and associates in 1984 that refers to a temperamental trait of young children. According to both parental reports and behavioral observations in the laboratory, approximately 15% of toddlers react with 2  marked inhibition to novel situations or unfamiliar adults and peers. They cease their play behavior and withdraw to the proximity of their caregivers, remaining vigilant of the situation and rarely approaching novel objects or unfamiliar people. 3. Rothbart and Bates’ Classification Argue that three broad dimensions best represent what researchers have found to characterize the structure of temperament: Extraversion/surgency includes “positive anticipation, impulsivity, activity level, and sensation seeking” (Kagan’s uninhibited children fit into this category.) Negative affectivity includes “fear, frustration, sadness, and discomfort”. These children are easily distressed; they may fret and cry often. Kagan’s inhibited children fit this category. Negative emotional reactivity or irritability reflect the core of Chess and Thomas’ category of the difficult child. Effortful control (self-regulation) – a person’s ability to regulate their behaviors & emotions. It includes “attentional focusing and shifting, inhibitory control (stopping impulsive actions), perceptual sensitivity (noticing details in the environment), and low-intensity pleasure / low threshold for pleasure” (finding joy in simple things). Infants who are high on effortful control show an ability to keep their arousal from getting too high and have strategies for soothing themselves. (less externalizing problems) By contrast, children low on effortful control are often unable to control their arousal; they become easily agitated and intensely emotional. Temperament and Child Rearing: The Goodness-of-Fit Model Goodness of fit: The match between a child’s temperament and the environmental demands the child must cope with. an active toddler - who is made to sit still for long periods of time OR a slow-to-warm-up toddler who is abruptly pushed into new situations on a regular basis. Goodness-of-fit model – describes how an effective match between child-rearing practices and a child’s temperament can lead to favorable outcomes Difficult children are less likely than easy children to receive sensitive care and, if they experience angry, punitive discipline, are more likely to develop adjustment problems later Life conditions and cultural values also affect the fit between parenting and child temperament ○ Good parental mental health, marital happiness, economic conditions ○ Collectivistic vs. individualistic cultures Some temperament characteristics pose more parenting challenges than others, at least in modern Western societies. When children are prone to distress, as exhibited by frequent crying and irritability, their parents may eventually respond by ignoring the child’s distress or trying to force the child to “behave.” In one research study, though, extra support and 3  training for mothers of distress-prone infants improved the quality of mother-infant interaction. The training led the mothers to alter their demands on the child, improving the fit between the child and the environment. Shy Children: ○ Benefit from parental encouragement to explore new situations. ○ Remain shy if parents are overprotective. Aggressive/Difficult Children: ○ Benefit from firm, consistent discipline and lower parental negativity. ○ Firm control is crucial, especially for children with self-regulation difficulties. ○ Parents may struggle with maintaining control, but these children need persistent, calm guidance. Children with High Negative Emotionality/Self-Regulatory Issues: ○ Pose greater challenges for parents. ○ Require calm, consistent parenting despite difficulties. Fearful Children: ○ Develop better early conscience with parental warmth and gentle discipline. ○ Thrive with discipline that promotes internalized conscience Different parenting strategies appear to work better for children with certain temperaments. This can be explained by the “goodness of fit” theory, as suggested by Thomas and Chess. Shy children appear to benefit from being encouraged by parents to explore novel situations and are more likely to remain shy and inhibited if parents are overprotective. Children who are aggressive and difficult to manage seem to benefit from a parenting style involving more restrictive control and lower parental negativity. Firm, consistent parental discipline appears to be particularly important for children who have difficulties with self-regulation. Since children who have high levels of negative emotionality or self-regulatory problems present greater challenges to parents than other children, it may be especially difficult to provide optimal care for them. Their parents appear likely to use less firm control over time, but they are also the very children who especially need calmly-persistent caregiver efforts. Fearful children tend to develop greater early conscience and do best under parental warmth and gentle discipline that promotes internalized conscience. Theories of Attachment WHAT IS ATTACHMENT? A close emotional bond between two people. Development of Attachment Attachment – strong affectionate tie we have with special people in our lives that leads us to feel pleasure when we interact with them and to be comforted by their nearness in times of stress 4  Begins with caregivers Infant-parent bond is vitally important Continuing quality of the parent-child relationship influences later development Early psychoanalytic and behaviorist theories viewed feeding time as the basis of the parent-infant emotional bond But more recent research has shown that attachment does not depend on hunger satisfaction Harlow removed infant monkeys from their mothers at birth; for six months they were reared by surrogate (substitute) “mothers.” One surrogate mother was made of wire, the other of cloth. Ethological Theory of Attachment The ethological perspective of British psychiatrist John Bowlby (1969, 1989) also stresses the importance of attachment in the first year of life and the responsiveness of the caregiver. Bowlby points out that both infants and their primary caregivers are biologically predisposed to form attachments. He argues that the newborn is biologically equipped to elicit attachment behavior. The baby cries, clings, coos, and smiles. Later, the infant crawls, walks, and follows the mother. The immediate result is to keep the primary caregiver nearby; the long-term effect is to increase the infant’s chances of survival. Recognizes the infant’s emotional tie to the caregiver as an evolved response that promotes survival Most widely accepted view John Bowlby applied this view to the human infant-caregiver bond: Like the young of other animals, human infants have a built-in set of behaviors that help keep the parent nearby to protect the infant from danger and to provide support Attachment bond is best understood in an evolutionary context in which survival of the species is of utmost importance In Bowlby’s Model, what are the four phases of attachment? According to Bowlby, attachment begins as a set of innate signals the baby uses to summon the parent, and then goes through 4 phases as it develops into a true affectionate bond. This provides a secure base in the parents’ absence. Phase 1: From birth to 2 months (Pre-attachment) Infants instinctively orient themselves to human figures. Strangers, siblings, and parents are equally likely to elicit smiling or crying from the infant. Built-in signals (crying, smiling, grasping) bring newborn babies into close contact with other humans, who comfort them 5 Phase 2: From 2 to 7 months (Attachment in the making) Attachment becomes focused on one figure, usually the primary caregiver, as the baby gradually learns to distinguish familiar from unfamiliar people. Babies respond differently to a familiar caregiver than to a stranger and begin to develop a sense of trust Phase 3: From 7 to 24 months (Clear-cut-attachment) Specific attachments develop. With increased locomotor skills, babies actively seek contact with regular caregivers, such as the mother or father. Babies display separation anxiety, becoming upset when the trusted caregiver leaves Phase 4: From 24 months on (formation of reciprocal relationships) Children become aware of others’ feelings, goals, and plans and begin to take these into account in directing their own actions. Separation protest declines, resulting from growth in representation and language which permits understanding of factors leading to parents’ coming and going, and predicting parents’ return Researchers’ recent findings that infants are more socially sophisticated and insightful than previously envisioned suggests that some of the characteristics of Bowlby’s phase 4, such as understanding the goals and intentions of the attachment figure, appear to be developing in phase 3 as attachment security is taking shape Ethological Theory of Attachment Internal working model – a set of expectations about the availability of attachment figures and their likelihood of providing support during times of stress This model becomes a vital part of personality, serving as a guide for all future close relationships It’s a simple mental model of the caregiver, their relationship, and the self as deserving of nurturant care Individual Differences in Attachment Although attachment to a caregiver intensifies midway through the first year, isn’t it likely that the quality of babies’ attachment experiences varies? Measuring the Security of Attachment Although virtually all family-reared babies become attached to a familiar caregiver, the quality of this relationship varies Widely used laboratory procedures for assessing attachment quality between 1 and 2 years of age is a strange situation. 6 Strange Situation Mary Ainsworth’s observational measure of infant attachment to a caregiver, which requires the infant to move through a series of introductions, separations, and reunions with the caregiver and an adult stranger in a prescribed order. Takes the baby through 8 short episodes of brief separations from and reunions with the parent Securely attached infants and toddlers should use the parent as a secure base from which to explore an unfamiliar playroom When the parent leaves, and unfamiliar adult should be less comforting than the parent In using the Strange Situation, researchers hope that their observations will provide information about the infant’s motivation to be near the caregiver and the degree to which the caregiver’s presence provides the infant with security and confidence. Attachment Patterns 4 attachment patterns have been recognized through the strange situation procedure Secure attachment: these infants use the parent as a secure base from which to explore environment They may be distressed by separation from the parent, but, when the parent returns, they actively seek contact and crying is reduced immediately Avoidant attachment: these infants are usually not distressed by the parent’s departure They respond to the stranger in much the same way as to the parent and are unresponsive to the parent during reunion Resistant attachment: these infants remain close to the parent before the departure and display angry, resistive behavior during reunion Disorganized/disoriented attachment: at reunion, these infants respond in a confused, contradictory way Reflects the greatest insecurity ○ Check Santrock book – page 310 Avoidant - are not distressed when PCG leaves the room, usually do not reestablish contact with her on her return, and may even turn their back on her. If contact is established, the infant usually leans away or looks away. Disorganized babies are disorganized and disoriented. In the Strange Situation, these babies might appear dazed, confused, and fearful. To be classified as disorganized, babies must show strong patterns of avoidance and resistance or display certain specific behaviors, such as extreme fearfulness around the caregiver Stability of Attachment Quality of attachment is usually secure and stable for middle-SES babies experiencing favorable life conditions Infants who move from insecurity to security typically have well-adjusted mothers with 7  positive family and friendship ties Perhaps many became parents before being psychologically ready but, with social support, grew into the role In low-SES families with many daily stresses and little social support, attachment generally moves away from security or changes from one insecure pattern to another Long-term study of poverty-stricken infants: many securely attached infants ended up insecure when reassessed in early adulthood Studies indicate that securely attached babies more often maintain their attachment status than insecure babies Exception is disorganized/disoriented attachment, unfortunately very stable, nearly 70% retain this classification over time Factors That Affect Attachment Security Four important influences: 1. Opportunity to establish a close relationship 2. Quality of caregiving 3. The baby’s characteristics 4. Family context Characteristics of Caregivers Based on Attachment Styles 1. Securely Attached Babies ○ Caregivers are sensitive to infants’ signals. ○ Consistently available to respond to needs. ○ Encourage babies to take an active role in interactions. ○ Respect the baby's pacing and cues for interaction. 2. Avoidant Babies ○ Caregivers are often unavailable or rejected. ○ Lack responsiveness to babies’ signals. ○ Provide little physical contact. ○ May display anger and irritability during interactions. 3. Resistant Babies ○ Caregivers are inconsistent in responding to needs. ○ Tend to show little affection. ○ Display minimal synchrony in interactions. 4. Disorganized Babies ○ Caregivers may exhibit neglect or physical abuse. ○ Often fail to provide a safe and predictable environment. 8  Opportunity for Attachment Series of research studies observed institutionalized infants whose mothers had given them up between 3 and 12 months of age Placed in a large ward where each shared a nurse with at least seven other babies Infants lost weight, cried constantly, and withdrew from the environment Emotional difficulties due to lack of forming a bond with one or a few adults Adopted children who spent 6-8 months in deprived Romanian orphanages displayed symptoms associated with attachment difficulties and with mental health problems in middle childhood Excessive desire for adult attention, “overfriendliness” to unfamiliar adults and peers, few friendships, cognitive impairments, inattention, and hyperactivity, Neurophysiological evidence suggest that, as early as 7 months, Romanian orphanage children experience disruption in the formation of neural structures involved in “reading” emotions Quality of Caregiving Research indicates that sensitive caregiving (responding promptly, consistently, and appropriately to infants) is related to attachment security across cultures and SES groups Insecure infants tend to have mothers who engage in less physical contact, handle them awkwardly or “routinely” and are sometimes resentful and rejecting in response to infant distress Interactional synchrony – form of communication in which the caregiver responds to infant signals in a well-timed and appropriate fashion Both partners (CAREGIVER AND INFANT) match emotional states, especially positive ones Separates experiences of secure and insecure babies Cross-cultural research suggests that security depends on attentive caregiving, not necessarily on moment-to-moment interaction Ex. Gusii people of Kenya, mothers rarely cuddle, hug, or interact playfully with their babies, but are very responsive to their infants’ needs, and most Gusii infants appear securely attached Secure Babies: Experience consistent and attuned responses from caregivers. Leads to trust, emotional regulation, and a strong sense of security. Insecure Babies: Encounter poorly timed, inconsistent, or unresponsive caregiving. Results in mistrust, difficulty regulating emotions, and attachment insecurity. QUIZ TILL HERE 9