Chemistry Lesson PDF

 RITZMOND B. MEJIA,LPT PROVINCE OF ABRA UNIVERSITY OF ABRA BSED-GENERAL SCIENCE (2023) LEPT 2023-BAGUIO CITY PHILIPPINE TENNIS ASSOCIATION  CLASSROOM POLICIES: 1. Attendance and Punctuality →Attend class regularly →Participation 2. Respect a...

 RITZMOND B. MEJIA,LPT PROVINCE OF ABRA UNIVERSITY OF ABRA BSED-GENERAL SCIENCE (2023) LEPT 2023-BAGUIO CITY PHILIPPINE TENNIS ASSOCIATION  CLASSROOM POLICIES: 1. Attendance and Punctuality →Attend class regularly →Participation 2. Respect and Classroom Etiquette →Listen Actively →Refrain from interrupting 3. Submissions and Deadlines → 4. Academic Integrity →Honesty →Integrity 5. Office Hours and Communication →Office hours availability →Reach out proactively  Grading System Attendance = 10% Written Works = 25% Performances = 30% Major Examinations = 35% 100%  COURSE OUTLINE 1. ESSENTIAL IDEAS 2. ATOMS, MOLECULES, IONS 3. ELECTRONIC STRUCTURE & PERIODIC PROPERTIES OF ELEMENTS Preliminary Examination 4. CHEMICAL BONDING & MOLECULAR GEOMETRY 5. STOICHIOMETRY & CHEMICAL REACTIONS 6. THERMOCHEMISTRY and THERMODYNAMICS Midterm Examination 7. EQUILIBRIUM CONCEPTS 8. KINETICS 9. ORGANIC CHEMISTRY Final Examination  General Chemistry Introduction Explore the fundamental principles of chemistry.  Atoms and the Periodic Table Atoms Periodic Table Building blocks of matter. Smallest unit of an element. Organized chart of elements. Atomic Structure and Bonding Understanding the parts of an atom. Electrons Negatively charged particles. Protons Positively charged particles. Neutrons Neutral particles. Electrons → exist around the nucleus of an atom in discrete, specific orbits. Electrons can not just exist at any distance from the nucleus. These orbits are called levels and we number them 1, 2, 3, 4, and so forth with the 1st level being the orbit closest to the nucleus. Proton →is a subatomic particle with a positive electrical charge. They are found in every atomic nucleus of every element. Neutrons →along with protons, are subatomic particles found inside the nucleus of every atom.  Chemical Reactions and Equations Transformations of matter. ex: Digestion, Combustion, and Cooking. 1 Reactants 2 Products Starting substances. Substances formed. 3 Coefficients 4 Types Balancing the Synthesis, equation. decomposition, etc.  TYPES OF REACTION DECOMPOSITION → a compound is broken into smaller chemical species SYNTHESIS → two or more reactants combine to form a more complex product States of Matter and Phase Changes Different forms of matter. 1 Solid Fixed shape and volume. 2 Liquid Fixed volume, variable shape. 3 Gas Variable shape and volume.  PLASMA →A gaseous state of matter that contains appreciable numbers of electrically charge particles. → The fourth state of matter naturally occurs in the interior of stars. What state or states of matter does each statement, describe? 1. This state has a definite volume. 2. This state has no definite shape. 3. This state allows the individual particles to move about while remaining in contact. 4. This state has individual particles in a fixed position with regard to each other. 5. This state has individual particles far apart from each other in space. 6. This state has a definite shape 7. At 0 100 C , what happens to the water It condenses It freezes It boils It melts 8. Which is an example of a reversible form of matter? Egg Fire Ice Wood 9. Which of the following cannot be classified as a matter? Heat Air Paper Wood 10. What do you mean by intermolecular spaces? How does it vary in different states of matter?  PROPERTIES OF MATTER PHYSICAL CHEMICAL Color, The ability of density, a substance hardness, to undergo a melting and specific boiling chemical points change Ex; flammability, toxicity, acidity, reactivity , and heat of combustion  Thermochemistry and Energy Heat and energy changes. Exothermic → Releases heat Endothermic → Absorbs heat  Acids, Bases, and pH Acid-base chemistry. Acids Sour taste, pH < 7. Bases Bitter taste, pH > 7. Neutral pH = 7.  The letters pH stand for potential of hydrogen, pH is measured on a scale of 0 to 14. On this scale, a pH value of 7 is neutral A pH value of less than 7 means it is more acidic, and a pH value of more than 7 means it is more basic.  ALKALINE BENEFITS -- IMPROVE HYDRATIONS -- BONE HEALTH -- ANTI OXIDANT -- DETOXIFICATION -- DIGESTIVE HEALTH -- DECREASE STOMACH ACIDITYY -- INCREASE IMPORTANT MINERALS IN THE BODY Pepsin (1.5 to 2) = ________ Perfume ( 6 ) = _________ ACIDS BASES NEUTRAL Coca-Cola( 2.6 ) = _________ Coffee- (4.85-5.10) = _________ Bleach (11-13 ) = _________ Milk ( 6.5-6.9 ) = _________ Baking soda ( 9 ) = _________ Water ( 7 ) = _________ Urine ( 4.5 ) = _________ Vape Juice ( 5.1) = _________ Gatorade ( 2.9 ) = _________ Sting ( 2.9 ) = _________  Kinetics and Equilibrium Rates and equilibrium of reactions. Reaction Rate Equilibrium Speed of a reaction. Forward and reverse rates equal. Factors Temperature, concentration, etc. Oxidation-Reduction Reactions Electron transfer reactions. Corrosion Batteries Metal oxidation. Redox reactions generate electricity. Applications of General Chemistry Chemistry's role in the world. 1 Medicine 2 Agriculture Drug Fertilizers and pesticides. development and treatment. 3 Technology Materials science and electronics. MEASUREMENTS  QUANTITY UNIT BASE ABBREVIATION MASS KILLOGRAM KG TEMPERATURE KELVIN K TIME SECOND S AMOUNT OF SUBSTANCE MOLE MOL  MASS → Large Body of Matter with no definite shape > a Mass of Curly hair > a Mass of Cyclist →Assemble or Cause to Assemble into a mass or as one body →FORMULA →We have a gold with 1 > Mass = p x v 3 volume 3000𝑐𝑚 and a > p= Density 3 Density 3.52 g/ 𝑐𝑚. > v= Volume  Aspect Mass Weight Mass is the amount Weight is the force Definition of matter contained exerted by gravity on in an object. an object. TEMPERATURE The measure of hotness or coldness expressed in terms of any of several scales including Fahrenheit and Celsius.  Temperature Fahrenheit ( ) Celsius ( ) Normal Human 98 ° F 37 ° C Body Temperature Room 68 ° F 20 ° C Temperature Water Boils 212 ° F 100 ° C Water Freezes 32 ° F 0°C FORMULA ℃= 𝐹 − 32 × 5 9 1.Refrigerator Temperature Temperature: 37°F 7. Ice Cream Freezer 2. Room Temperature Temperature: -20°F Temperature: 72°F 8. Warm Bath Water 3. Freezer Temperature Temperature: 104°F Temperature: -10°F 4. Hot Coffee 9. Air Conditioner Temperature: 180°F Temperature: 60°F 5. Body Temperature 10. Boiling Water Temperature: 98.6°F Temperature: 212°F 6. Oven Temperature (Medium Heat) Temperature: 350°F 11. Slurpee 16. Hot Chocolate Temperature: 32°F Temperature: 140°F 12. Hot Dog 17. Ice Cream Sandwich Temperature: -15°F Temperature: 160°F 18. Fresh Milk 13. Iced Coffee Temperature: 40°F Temperature: 40°F 19. Bottled Water from the 14. Frozen Pizza Refrigerator Temperature: 0°F Temperature: 45°F 15. Chilled Soda 20. Coffee from the Coffee Temperature: 39°F Machine Temperature: 190°F The Importance of Chemistry in Human Beings by Ritzmond Mejia Chemical Composition of the Human Body 1 Oxygen 2 Carbon The backbone of all The most abundant organic molecules, element in the body, including proteins, vital for respiration carbohydrates, lipids, and and energy nucleic acids. production. 3 Hydrogen 4 Nitrogen A key component of A crucial element in water, which makes proteins and nucleic up a significant acids, which are portion of the body. essential for cell growth and function. Role of Chemical Reactions in Medical 1 Drug Action Medicines interact with specific molecules within the body to achieve their therapeutic effects. 2 Diagnostic Testing Chemical tests like blood and urine analysis help diagnose and monitor various medical conditions. 3 Surgical Procedures Surgery relies on chemical principles like anesthesia and sterilization to ensure patient safety. Importance of Nutrients and Vita Proteins Carbohydrates Essential for building and repairing The body's primary source of energy, tissues, producing enzymes, and providing fuel for cells and organs. transporting nutrients. Fats Vitamins & Minerals Important for cell structure, hormone Essential for various bodily functions, production, and energy storage, but including immune system support, should be consumed in moderation. energy metabolism, and bone health.  Chemical Imbalances and their Ef Hormonal Electrolyte Metabolic Imbalances Imbalances Disorders Can lead to various Can disrupt muscle Can affect how the health issues, function, nerve body processes including weight impulses, and fluid energy, leading to gain, mood swings, balance, potentially conditions like and infertility. causing fatigue, diabetes, obesity, weakness, or and heart disease. seizures. Neurotransmitters and Brain Chemistry Dopamine Associated with pleasure, motivation, and reward, influencing mood, sleep, and learning. Serotonin Regulates mood, appetite, sleep, and memory, linked to feelings of happiness and well-being. Nurepinephrine Involved in alertness, focus, and stress response, influencing heart rate, blood pressure, and energy levels. Maintaining Chemical Balance for Overall Health Balanced Diet Regular Exercise Adequate Sleep Stress Management Consume a variety of Physical activity helps Rest allows the body Chronic stress can disrupt nutrient-rich foods to regulate hormone to repair and restore chemical balance, so provide the body with levels, improves itself, including managing stress through essential chemicals. circulation, and chemical processes. techniques like meditation promotes overall well- is crucial. being. ATOMIC THEORY Atomic theory all things can be accounted for by innumerable combinations of hard, small, indivisible particles (called atoms) of various sizes but of the same basic material  The ancient atomic theory was proposed in the 5th century by the Greek philosophers Leucippus and Democritus revived in the 1st century BCE by the Roman philosopher and poet Lucretius. The modern atomic theory, which has undergone continuous refinement, began to flourish at the beginning of the 19th century with the work of the English chemist John Dalton. the experiments of the British physicist Ernest Rutherford in the early 20th century on the scattering of alpha particles from a thin gold foil established the Rutherford atomic model  According to the Rutherford atomic model: 1.The positive charge and most of the mass of an atom is concentrated in an extremely small volume. He called this region of the atom as a nucleus. 2.Rutherford’s model proposed that the negatively charged electrons surround the nucleus of an atom. He also claimed that the electrons surrounding the nucleus revolve around it with very high speed in circular paths. He named these circular paths as orbits. 3.Electrons being negatively charged and nucleus being a densely concentrated mass of positively charged particles are held together by a strong electrostatic force of attraction.  in the 1920s, atomic theory became a precise mathematical science. advent of quantum mechanics and the Schrödinger equation physicist Erwin Schrödinger devised a partial differential equation for the quantum dynamics of atomic electrons, including the electrostatic repulsion of all the negatively charged electrons from each other and their attraction to the positively charged nucleus.  The recent availability of high- speed supercomputers to solve the Schrödinger equation has made possible accurate calculations of properties for atoms and molecules with ever larger numbers of electrons quantum number-describe the size, shape, and orientation in space of the orbitals on an atom. Atomic Structure and Symbolism Atomic Structure and Symbolism The development of modern atomic theory revealed much about the inner structure of atoms. It was learned that an atom contains a very small nucleus composed of positively charged protons and uncharged neutrons, surrounded by a much larger volume of space containing negatively charged electrons. The nucleus contains the majority of an atom’s mass because protons and neutrons are much heavier than electrons STRUCTURE OF AN ATOM  If the nucleus were the size of a blueberry, the atom would be about the size of a football stadium  When describing the properties of tiny objects such as atoms, we use appropriately small units of measure, such as the atomic mass unit (amu) and the fundamental unit of charge (e). Dalton (Da) and the unified atomic mass unit (u) A proton has a mass of 1.0073 amu and a charge of 1+. A neutron is a slightly heavier particle with a mass 1.0087 amu and a charge of zero CHEMICAL FORMULA  Chemical formula is a way of presenting information about the chemical proportions of atoms that constitute a particular chemical compound or molecule, using chemical element symbols, numbers, and sometimes also other symbols, such as parentheses, dashes, brackets, commas and plus (+) and minus (−) signs. WATER = 𝐇𝟐 𝐎 METHANE = C𝐇𝟒 TABLE SALT = NaCl FINDING THE OXIDATION NUMBERS (VALENCE) OF ELEMENT USING PERIODIC TABLE The Fundamental Laws of Chemistry Law 1: The Conservation of Mass ❖Ancient Greek philosophy ❖“Nothing arises from nothing” ❖what exists has now always existed since no new matter can create where none previously existed. ❖Antoine Lavoisier reformulated the law of conservation of mass for chemistry Law 1: The Conservation of Mass Antoine ❖“states that the atoms of an item cannot be made or demolished but can be moved around it and transformed into various particles” Law 1: The Conservation of Mass ❖ The law of conservation of mass asserts that the total mass existing before and after a chemical reaction is the same ❖the total mass present before a chemical reaction is like the total mass present after the reaction. Law 2: Definite Proportions ❖developed by Joseph Proust (1754- 1826). ❖regardless of the quantity or source of the original substance, when a compound is broken down into its basic elements, the masses of the constituents will always have the same proportions. Law 2: Definite Proportions ❖For instance, a 50-gram sample of carbon monoxide will have 21.5 g of carbon and 28.5 g of oxygen. ❖always mixed in the same mass proportions. Law 3: Multiple Proportions ❖The weights of one element that combine with a fixed weight of another of these elements are integer multiples of one another in such instances Law 3: Multiple Proportions ❖ if two elements mix to form more than one compound, the masses of one element coupled with a fixed weight of the second element form in small integer ratios. Lussac’s Gaseous Volumes Law ❖Lussac enacted this rule in 1808. ❖When gases are created or mixed in a chemical reaction, they do this in a simple volume ratio (if all the gases are at the same pressure and temperature) ❖This law can be considered a version of the fixed proportions law. Avogadro’s Law ❖In the year 1811 ❖ Under the same temperature and pressure ❖the same volume of all gases contains an equal number of molecules. ❖will have the same number of molecules if they are at the same temperature and pressure. Geometrical optics Geometrical optics Early writers discussed here treated vision more as a geometrical than as a physical The first known author of a treatise on geometrical optics was the geometer Euclid  Geometrical optics Lines (or visual rays) can be drawn in a straight line to the object. Those things seen under a larger angle appear larger. Right and left rays appear right and left Things seen within several angles appear clearer. ❖ Euclid did not define the physical nature of these visual rays but, using the principles of geometry ❖ he discussed the effects of perspective and the rounding of things seen at a distance. ❑ Hero of Alexandria (c. AD 10–70) extended the principles of geometrical optics to consider problems of reflection (catoptrics) ❑ Hero of Alexandria Hero occasionally commented on the physical nature of visual rays indicating that they proceeded at great speed from the eye to the object seen and were reflected from smooth surfaces  CHAPTER 3 ELECTRONIC STRUCTURE & PERIODIC PROPERTIES OF ELEMENTS Electro magnetic Energy  Electromagnetic Energy Electromagnetic energy travels in waves and spans a broad spectrum from very long radio waves to very short gamma rays.  Electromagnetic Energy Electromagnetic radiation is reflected or absorbed mainly by several gases in the Earth's atmosphere, among the most important being water vapor, carbon dioxide, and ozone. ELECTROMAGNETIC WAVE/ENERGY a form of radiation that travel though the universe.  Types of Waves ELECTROMAGNETIC WAVE RADIO WAVES →AM and FM Radio Broadcasting which involves transmitting sound to a wide audience. →Radar is a detection system that uses radio waves to get information about objects. →Bluetooth and wireless communication use radio waves to create connections between devices.  Types of Waves ELECTROMAGNETIC WAVE MICROWAVES  Types of Waves ELECTROMAGNETIC WAVE INFRARED WAVES  Types of Waves ELECTROMAGNETIC WAVE INFRARED WAVES  Optics →Deals with the determination of behaviour and the properties of light, along with its interactions with the matter and also with the instruments which are used to detect it.  ELECTRO MAGNETIC LIGHT WAVES ELECTROMAGNE NO MEDUIM TIC LIGHT WAVES  SPEED 300,000 Km/s LIGHT WAVES  Travels Fastest Through Vacuum LIGHT WAVES  The human eye can only detect only a small portion of this spectrum called visible light. A radio detects a different portion of the spectrum, and an x-ray machine uses yet another portion. NASA's scientific instruments use the full range of the electromagnetic spectrum to study the Earth, the solar system, and the universe beyond. The Bohr Model  Bohr model, description of the structure of atoms, especially that of hydrogen, proposed (1913) by the Danish physicist Niels Bohr  Bohr amended that view of the motion of the planetary electrons to bring the model in line with the regular patterns (spectral series) of light emitted by real hydrogen atoms  he proposed, radiated from hydrogen atoms only when an electron made a transition from an outer orbit to one closer to the nucleus. The energy lost by the electron in the abrupt transition is precisely the same as the energy of the quantum of emitted light.  The Quantum Theory is the theoretical basis of modern physics that explains the nature and behavior of matter and energy on the atomic and subatomic level  In 1900, physicist Max Planck presented his quantum theory to the German Physical Society. to discover the reason that radiation from a glowing body changes in color from red, to orange, and, finally, to blue as its temperature rises.  Planck found that at certain discrete temperature levels (exact multiples of a basic minimum value), energy from a glowing body will occupy different areas of the color spectrum. the more precisely one value is measured, the more flawed will be the measurement of the other value Albert Einstein's famous comment, "God does not play dice."  Electron Configuration the arrangement of electrons in orbitals around an atomic nucleus. in order of filling, with the number of electrons in each orbital indicated by superscript  Electron Configuration In this notation, the electronic configuration of sodium would be 1s22s22p63s1, distributed in the orbitals as 2-8-1. The electronic configuration of an element is a symbolic notation of the manner in which the electrons of its atoms are distributed over different atomic orbitals. Electron Configuration The Aufbau principle: electrons must completely fill the atomic orbitals of a given energy level before occupying an orbital associated with a higher energy level. Electrons occupy orbitals in the increasing order of orbital energy level. Why are electronic configurations important? provide insight into the chemical behaviour of elements by helping determine the valence electrons of an atom. This makes it easier to collectively study the properties of the elements.  Ionic and Molecular Compounds Ionic Bond composed of atoms that readily lose electrons (a metal) reacts with an element composed of atoms that readily gain electrons (a nonmetal)  Ionic Bond The compound formed by this transfer is stabilized by the electrostatic attractions (ionic bonds) A compound that contains ions and is held together by ionic bonds is called an ionic compound Molecular compounds composed of two or more nonmetal atoms that share electrons with one another in a covalent bond. Water, H2O, is a molecular compound. It's composed of two hydrogen atoms and one oxygen atom held together by two covalent bonds.  Molecular compounds molecular compounds are both nonmetals. THE MATHEMATICS OF CHEMISTRY  Mathematics is used widely in chemistry and are absolutely necessary to explore important concepts in chemistry with a basic knowledge of some of the mathematics that will be used in your chemistry course, you will be well prepared to deal with the concepts and theories of chemistry. 1. MEASURING MATTER – Scientists use all kinds of equipment to measure matter. – Errors in measurements can be made if the scientist does not know how to properly use the equipment or if the equipment is damaged. – A variety of instruments are available for making direct measurements of the macroscopic properties of a chemical substance 1. MEASURING MATTER – For example, we usually measure the volume of a liquid sample with pipettes, burets, graduated cylinders 1. MEASURING MATTER – Balances are utilized to measure the mass of matter. 1. MEASURING MATTER – Length is measured using a metric stick or a metric ruler marked in millimeters and centimeters. Base Quantity Unit Name Abbreviation mass kilogram kg length meter m time second s temperature Kelvin K amount of mole mol substance intensity of light candela cd 2. Density ✓Density is a physical property that is defined as a substance’s mass divided by its volume ✓Density is usually a measured property of a substance, so its numerical value affects the significant figures in a calculation ✓ Common units for density include g/mL, g/cm3, g/L, kg/L, 2. Density Problem 1: You have a gold with a volume of 15 cm3 and a mass of 45 g. What is its density? Problem 2: You have a different rock with a volume of 30 cm3 and a mass of 60 g. What is its density?  Temperature One of the fundamental quantities in science is temperature, which is a measure of the average amount of energy of motion measure of hotness or coldness expressed in terms of any of several arbitrary scales and indicating the direction in which heat energy will spontaneously flow  TYPES OF ENERGY MECHANICAL ENERGY ❖ The energy that is possessed by an object due to its motion or due to its position ❖ Mechanical energy can be either kinetic energy (energy of motion) or potential energy (stored energy of position).  TYPES OF ENERGY THERMAL ENERGY ❖produced when a rise in temperature causes atoms and molecules to move faster and collide with each other.  TYPES OF ENERGY SONIC ENERGY ❖the energy of sound waves ❖It does not require any kind of fuel  TYPES OF ENERGY NUCLEAR ENERGY ❖a form of energy released from the nucleus, the core of atoms, made up of protons and neutrons (fission/fusion)  TYPES OF ENERGY GRAVITATIONAL ENERGY ❖the energy stored in an object due to its height above the Earth  TYPES OF ENERGY KINETIC ENERGY ❖energy that is generated due to the motion of the object.  TYPES OF ENERGY CHEMICAL ENERGY  TYPES OF ENERGY ELECTROMAGNETIC ENERGY ❖ travels in waves and spans a broad spectrum from very long radio waves to very short gamma rays  TYPES OF ENERGY POTENTIAL ENERGY ❖ stored energy that depends upon the relative position of various parts of a system  TYPES OF ENERGY IONIZATION ENERGY ❖ process by which electrically neutral atoms or molecules are converted to electrically charged atoms or molecules (ions) through gaining or losing electrons