Chapter V Assessment of Intelligence and Achievement PDF

Chapter V. Introduction Can intelligence be measured accurately? In order to measure something we must first be very clear on its definition. So what exactly is intelligence? There are very differing views about what intelligence is. And there are a number of different ways that the term i...

Chapter V. Introduction Can intelligence be measured accurately? In order to measure something we must first be very clear on its definition. So what exactly is intelligence? There are very differing views about what intelligence is. And there are a number of different ways that the term intelligence is used in conversation. As Albert Einstein said, “Everybody is a genius but if you judge a fish by its ability to climb a tree, it will live its whole life thinking that it is stupid.” Intelligence is relative to the individual and his / her skills. Everyone in the world, from any walk of life can teach you something you don’t know. The broadest definition of intelligence, which can be applied to humans, animals and computing machines, is the ability to solve problems, quickly and efficiently. However for more complex organisms such as animals, and mammals, the intelligence level of individuals is high enough to solve problems beyond those needed for survival and reproduction. What more for humans? So as we see, intelligence can be regarded like a spectrum that has both amplitude and width. Some people are exceptionally gifted at one thing such as music or math or sports or languages, sort of like those special purpose computers, while others may have a broad intelligence to solve a large variety of problems such as those encountered by diplomats. So now to answer the first question, let us read through this chapter and obtain a knowledge base on various measures of intelligence. Lesson Proper: What is Intelligence? - a multifaceted capacity that manifests itself in different ways across the life span. Intelligence defined: Views of Scholars and Test Professionals A. Francis Galton - First person to publish on the HERITABILITY OF INTELLIGENCE, thus framing the contemporary nature-nurture debate - He believed that the MOST INTELLIGENT PERSONS were those equipped with the best sensory abilities - Attempted to measure this sort of Intelligence in many of the SENSORIMOTOR AND OTHER PERCEPTION-RELATED TESTS HE DEVISED B. Alfred Binet - Components of Intelligence o Reasoning o Judgment o Memory o Abstraction - Developed a more complex measure of Intelligence C. David Wechsler - Intelligence as “aggregate” or “global” capacity - Considered other factors (TRAITS AND PERSONALITY) in assessing intelligence - At first, he proposed TWO qualitatively abilities : Verbal andPerformance - Then, he added other factors Verbal Comprehension Working Memory Perceptual Organization Processing Speed D. Jean Piaget - Intelligence is evolving biological adaptations to the outside world - Focused on the development of cognition in children - Schema (plural: Schemata): an organized action or mental structure that when applied to the world, leads to knowing and understanding - THE BASIC MENTAL OPERATIONS Assimilation: Actively organizing new information so that it fits in what already perceived and thought Accommodation: Changing what is already perceived or thought so that it fits with the new information DISEQUILIBRIUM – causes the individual to discover new information, perceptions, and communication skills E. Charles Spearman - Theory of General Intelligence/ Two- Factor Theory of Intelligence - (g) – general intellectual ability (s) – specific component (e) – error components - The greater the magnitude of g in a test of intelligence, the better the test was thought to predict overall intelligence - g factor is based on some type of general electrochemical mental energy available to the brain for problem solving - Abstract Reasoning WAS thought to be the best measures of g in formal test F. Joy Paul Guilford - Intelligence is a systematic collection of abilities or functions for the processing of information of different kinds in various ways - De-emphasized (g) G. Louis Thurstone - Intelligence is considered as mental trait. It is the capacity for abstraction, which is inhibitory process - SEVEN PRIMARY ABILITIES o Word Fluency o Verbal Comprehension o Spatial Visualization o Number Facility o Associative Memory o Reasoning o Perceptual Speed H. Howard Gardner - Intelligence is the ability to solve problems, or to create products, that are valued within one or more cultural settings - THEORY OF MULTIPLE INTELLIGENCE I. Raymond Cattell and John Horn - TWO MAJOR TYPES OF COGNITIVE ABILITIES Crystallized Intelligence (Gc) Acquired skills and knowledge that are dependent on exposure to a particular culture as well as on formal and informal evaluation Example: VOCABULARY Fluid Intelligence (Gf) Nonverbal, relatively culture-free, and independent of specific instruction Example: Encoding of Short Term Memory J. Robert Sternberg - Triarchic Theory of Intelligence - According to the triarchic theory, intelligence has three aspects: analytical, creative, and practical. Analytical intelligence: Analytical intelligence is involved when the components of intelligence are applied to analyze, evaluate, judge, or compare and contrast. Practical intelligence: Practical intelligence involves individuals applying their abilities to the kinds of problems that confront them in daily life, such as on the job or in the home.  Creative intelligence: relates to the way a person approaches new information or a new task. You may also hear creative intelligence referred to as experiential intelligence. It involves a person's ability to apply their existing knowledge to new problems. Measuring Intelligence Some tasks used to measure intelligence - Infancy (Birth to 18 months) A. For Infancy: Measuring SENSORIMOTOR DEVELOPMENT Techniques include: 1. Testing Alerting Response Assessing it by focusing a light on the eyes of the infant. 2. Testing Orienting Response: Assessing the ability in turning in direction of stimulus Ringing of bell B. For Children: Measuring of VERBAL and PERFORMANCE ABILITIES C. For Adults: According to Wechsler, abilities such as retention of general information, quantitative reasoning, expressive language and memory, and social judgment - This can be obtained during clinical evaluation or corporate Individual Intelligence Tests A. Stanford-Binet Intelligence Scales: Current Fifth Edition (SB5) 1st Edition - The first published intelligence test to provide organized and detailed administration and scoring instructions - The first American test to employ the concept of IQ. And it was the first test to introduce the concept of an alternate item, an item to be substituted for a regular item under specified conditions - CRITICISMS: lack of representativeness of the standardization sample Revisions 1. 1937 - Included the development of two equivalent forms, labeled L (for Lewis) and M (for Maud) - New types of tasks for use with preschool-level and adult-level testtakers - Adequate standardization sample - CRITICISM: lack of representation of minority groups during the test’s development 2. 1960 - Consisted of only a single form (labeled L-M) and included the items considered to be the best from the two forms of the 1937 test, with no new items added to the test - The use of the deviation IQ tables in place of the ratio IQ tables 3. 1972 - The quality of the standardization sample was criticized - Norms may also have overrepresented the West, as well as large urban communities 1. 4th Edition - Stanford-Binet: Fourth Edition (SB:FE) - 1986 - Previous versions used AGE SCALE, but the 4th edition uses point scale - Point Scale - a test organized into subtests by category of item, not by age at which most testtakers are presumed capable of responding in the way that is keyed as correct Test Composite - a test score or index derived from the combination of, and/ or a mathematical transformation of, one or more subtest scores th 2. 5 Edition – SB5 – 2003 - Designed for administration to assess as young as 2 and as old as 85 (or older) - Yields a number of composite scores, including a Full Scale IQ derived from the administration of ten subtests Subtest Scores (mean = 10; sd = 3) Composite Scores (mean = 100; sd = 15) - In addition, the test yields five Factor Index scores corresponding to each of the five factors that the test is presumed to measure KEY FEATURES OF SB 1. Routing Test - A task used to direct or route the examinee to a particular level of questions - Direct an examinee to test items that have a high probability of being at an  optimal level of difficulty 2. Teaching Items - Designed to illustrate the task required and assure the examiner that the examinee understands 3. Floor - lowest level of the items on a subtest 4. Ceiling – highest level of the items on a subtest 5. Basal Level - A stage in a test achieved by a testtaker by meeting some preset criterion to continue to be tested-for example, responding correctly to two consecutive items on an ability test that contains increasingly difficult items may establish a “base” from which to continue testing 6. Ceiling Level - A stage in a test achieved by a testtaker as a result of meeting some preset criterion to discontinue testing-for example, responding incorrectly to two consecutive items on an ability test that contains increasingly difficult items may establish a presumed “ceiling” on the testtaker’s ability 7. Testing the Limit - a procedure that involves administering test items beyond the level at which the test manual dictates discontinuance SB5 has a test administration protocol that could be characterized as adaptive in nature 8. Extra-test Behavior - Observations made by an examiner regarding what the examinee does and how the examinee reacts during the course of testing B. The Wechsler Tests 1. Wechsler-Bellevue 1 (W-B 1) or Wechsler-Bellevue (W-B) – 1939 - Has Point Scale - Items were classified by subtest - Organized into six verbal subtests and five performance subtests, and all the items in each test were arranged in order of increasing difficulty 2. Wechsler-Bellevue 2 (W-B 2) – 1942; an alternate form - Criticisms: The standardization sample was rather restricted Some subtests lacked sufficient inter-item reliability o Some of the subtests were made up of items that were too easy The scoring criteria for certain items were too ambiguous 3. Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale (WAIS) – 1955 - Organized into Verbal and Performance scales - Scoring yielded a Verbal IQ, a Performance IQ, and a Full Scale IQ Revisions: 3.1 WAIS-R (1981) - New norms and materials - Alternate administration of verbal and performance tests 3.2 WAIS-III (1997) - Contained updated and more user-friendly materials - Test materials were made physically larger to facilitate viewing by older adults  - Some items were added to each of the subtests that extended the test’s floor in order to make the test more useful for evaluating people with extreme intellectual deficits - Extensive research was designed to detect and eliminate items that may have contained cultural bias - Norms were expanded to include testtakers in the age range of 74 to 89 3.3 WAIS-IV (2008) - It is made up of subtests that are designated either as core or supplemental - Core subtest is one that is administered to obtain a composite score - Supplemental Subtest is used for purposes such as providing additional clinical information or extending the number of abilities or processes sampled - Intended for use with individuals ages 16 to 90 years and 11 months - Completion time: 60 to 90 minutes - Contains ten core subtests (Block Design, Similarities, Digit Span, Matrix Reasoning, Vocabulary, Arithmetic, Symbol Search, Visual Puzzles, Information, and Coding) and five supplemental subtests (Letter-Number Sequencing, Figure Weights, Comprehension, Cancellation, and Picture Completion) - More explicit administration instructions as well as the expanded use of demonstration and sample items—this in an effort to provide assessees with practice in doing what is required, in addition to feedback on their performance - All of the test items were thoroughly reviewed to root out any possible cultural bias - Floor = 40; Ceiling = 160 4. Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children (WISC) - 1st edition was made in 1949 - Currently in its 5th edition - WISC V - 2014 - Ages 6 years old up to 16 years and 11 months - FSIQ, Primary Index Scores and Ancillary Index Scores 21 subtests; 15 composite scores - Completion time: 60 minutes - 5. Wechsler Pre-School and Primary Scale of Intelligence (WPPSI) - 1st edition was made in1967 - Currently in its 4th edition - WPPSI-IV (2012) Completion time: - Ages 2 years and 6 months up to 7 years and 7 months - Ages 2:6 to 3:11: 30–45 Minutes ¼ Ages 4:0 to 7:7: 45–60 Minutes Short Forms of Intelligence Test - Short form refers to a test that has been abbreviated in length, typically to reduce the time needed for test administration, scoring, and interpretation - In 1958, David Wechsler endorsed the use of short forms but only for screening purposes. Years later, perhaps in response to the potential for abuse of short forms, he took a much dimmer view of reducing the number of subtests just to save time - From a psychometric standpoint, the validity of a test is affected by and is somewhat dependent on the test’s reliability. Changes in a test that lessen its reliability may also lessen its validity 6. Wechsler Abbreviated Scale of Intelligence (WASI) – 1999 - Designed to answer the need for a short instrument to screen intellectual ability in testtakers from 6 to 89 years of age - The test comes in a two-subtest form (consisting of Vocabulary and Block Design) that takes about 15 minutes to administer and a four-subtest form that takes about 30 minutes to administer - WASI-2 – 2011 - Making the test materials more user friendly, and increasing the psychometric soundness of the test Group Tests of Intelligence A. 1917 World War 1 8. Army Alpha Test - administered to Army recruits who could read. It contained tasks such as general information questions, analogies, and scrambled sentences to reassemble 9. Army Beta Test - designed for administration to foreign-born recruits with poor knowledge of English or to illiterate recruits. It contained tasks such as mazes, coding, and picture completion An original objective of the Alpha and Beta tests was to measure the ability to be a good soldier. However, after the war, that objective seemed to get lost in the shuffle as the tests were used in various aspects of civilian life to measure general intelligence. An Army Alpha or Beta test was much easier to obtain, administer, and interpret than a Stanford-Binet test, and it was also much cheaper. B. World War 2 1. Army General Classification Test (AGCT): administered to more than 12 million recruits. 2. TODAY, group tests are still administered to prospective recruits, primarily for screening purposes. Screening Tool - an instrument or procedure used to identify a particular trait or constellation of traits at a gross or imprecise level GROUP TEST in SCHOOL SETTING - Group intelligence test results provide school personnel with valuable information for instruction-related activities and increased understanding of the individual pupil - Group intelligence tests in the schools are used in special forms as early as the kindergarten level. The tests are administered to groups of 10 to 15 children, each of whom receives a test booklet that includes printed pictures and diagrams. For the  most part, simple motor responses are required to answer items. Oversized alternatives in the form of pictures in a multiple-choice test might appear on the pages, and it is the child’s job to circle or place an X on the picture that represents the correct answer to the item presented orally by the examiner. During such testing in small groups, the testtakers will be carefully monitored to make certain they are following the directions Some group intelligence test for school settings: 1. California Test of Mental Maturity 2. Kuhlmann-Anderson Intelligence Test 3. Henmon-Nelson Tests of Mental Ability 4. Cognitive Abilities Test 5. Otis-Lennon School Ability Tests (OLSAT) formerly Otis-Lennon Mental Ability Tests o In general, group tests are useful screening tools when large numbers of examinees must be evaluated either simultaneously or within a limited time frame Other Measures of Intellectual Abilities A. Cognitive Styles: a psychological dimension that characterizes the consistency with which one acquires and processes information Examples: 1. Field Dependence vs Field Independence 2. Reflection vs Impulsivity 3. Visualizer vs Verbalizer B. Measures of Creativity o Originality - the ability to produce something that is innovative or non-obvious o Fluency - the ease with which responses are reproduced and is usually measured by the total number of responses produced o Flexibility - the variety of ideas presented and the ability to shift from one approach to another o Elaboration - the richness of detail in a verbal explanation or pictorial display - A criticism frequently leveled at group standardized intelligence tests (as well as at other ability and achievement tests) is that evaluation of test performance is too heavily focused on whether the answer is correct. - The heavy emphasis on correct response leaves little room for the evaluation of processes such as originality, fluency, flexibility, and elaboration C. Convergent Thinking vs. Divergent Thinking - Convergent Thinking: A deductive reasoning process that entails recall and consideration of facts as well as a series of logical judgments to narrow down solutions and eventually arrive at one solution. - Divergent Thinking: A reasoning process in which thought is free to move in many different directions, making several solutions possible. Requires flexibility of thought, originality, and imagination. Intelligence: Some Issues A. Nature VS Nurture - Preformationism All living organisms are preformed at birth All of the organism’s structures, including intelligence, are preformed at birth and therefore cannot be improved. - Predeterminism: One’s abilities are pre-determined by genetic inheritance and that no amount of learning or other intervention can enhance what has been genetically encoded to unfold time In general, the proponents of the nurture side of nature- nurture controversy emphasize the crucial importance and post-natal environment, socioeconomic status, educational opportunities, and parental modelling with respect to intellectual development B. Interactionist View - We are free to become all that we can be The Stability of Intelligence Intelligence does not seem to be stable for much of one’s adult life Full scale IQ may seem to remain the same over time, although the individual abilities assessed may change significantly Verbal Intellectual skills to be highly stable over time – IVNIK et. Al YOUNG ADULTHOOD INTELLIGENCE is the most suitable determinant of cognitive performance TERMAN, suggested that gifted children tended to maintain their superior intellectual ability The Construct Validity of Tests of Intelligence - The evaluation of a test’s construct validity proceeds on the assumption that one knows in advance exactly what the test is supposed to measure - It is essential to understand how the test developer defined intelligence Other Issues with Intelligence Tests A. Flynn effect - Intelligence inflation/10 years B. Personality - Street Efficacy: perceived ability to avoid violent confrontations and to be safe in one’s neighborhood C. Gender - Males have the edge when it comes to g factor in intelligence especially when only the highest-scoring group on the ability test is considered - Males also tend to outperform females on tasks requiring visual spatialization (Chen,2007) - Girls may generally outperform males on language-skill related task, although differences may be minimized when assessment is conducted by computer (Horne, 2007) D. Family Environment - Divorce may have significant consequences in the life of child ranging from impaired school achievement to impaired social problem solving ability (Guidubaldi and Duckworth, 2001) E. Culture *Culture Loading: A test incorporates the vocabulary, concepts, traditions, knowledge, and feelings associated with a particular culture * Culture-Fair Intelligence Test: Designed to minimize the influence of culture with regard to various aspects of the evaluation procedures Achievement Tests - Designed to measure accomplishment - A test of achievement may be standardized nationally, regionally, or locally, or it may not be standardized at all - A sound achievement test is one that adequately samples the targeted subject matter and reliably gauges the extent to which the examinees have learned it Curriculum-based assessment (CBA): a term used to refer to assessment of information acquired from teachings at school Curriculum-based measurement (CBM): a type of CBA, is characterized by the use of standardized measurement procedures to derive local norms to be used in the evaluation of student performance on curriculum-based tasks Aptitude tests: - Tend to focus more on informal learning or life experiences - Also referred to as prognostic tests, are typically used to make predictions Pre-School Level 1. Checklist - a questionnaire on which marks are made to indicate the presence or absence of a specified behavior, thought, event, or circumstance 2. Rating Scale - a form completed by an evaluator (a rater, judge, or examiner) to make a judgment of relative standing with regard to a specified variable or list of variables 3. Informal evaluation - a typically nonsystematic, relatively brief, and “off-the- record” assessment leading to the formation of an opinion or attitude conducted by any person, in any way, for any reason, in an unofficial context that is not subject to the ethics or other standards of an evaluation by a professional Diagnostic Tests - a tool used to identify areas of deficit to be targeted for intervention - Evaluative Information: typically applied to tests or test data that are used to make judgments (such as pass–fail) - Diagnostic Information: Typically applied to tests or test data used to pinpoint a student’s difficulty, usually for remedial purposes Group Achievement Tests 1. Stanford Achievement Test (SAT) - It evaluates achievement in kindergarten through 12th grades in the following areas: spelling, reading comprehension, word study and skills, language arts, social studies, science, mathematics, and listening comprehension 2. Metropolitan Achievement Test (MAT) - Measures achievement in reading by evaluating vocabulary, word recognition, and reading comprehension - Also measures mathematics by evaluating number concepts, problem solving, and computation - Now in its eighth edition, the MAT-8 was renormed in 2000, and alternate versions of the test including Braille, large print, and audio formats were made available for use with children having visual limitations 3. College Entrance Test: SAT Reasoning Test (SAT-I) American College Test (ACT) Non Verbal Group Ability Test 4. Raven Progressive Matrices (RPM) - One of the best known and most popular nonverbal group tests - Although used primarily in educational settings, the Raven is a suitable test anytime one needs an estimate of an individual’s general intelligence (Spearman’s g) - Group or Individual - 5 years and Older - 60 matrices, graded in difficulty - Minimize the effect of language - Better measure of intelligence than Wechsler - Worldwide Norms 5. Goodenough-Harris Drawing Test (G-HDT) - One of the quickest, easiest, and least expensive to administer of all ability tests - Group or Individual - The subject is instructed to draw a picture of a whole man and to do the best job possible - Scored by items included in drawing (ex.clothing) - 70 points possible - Works best with children and younger children - Good psychometrics but outdated norms (not standardized) 6. Culture Fair Intelligence Test - Designed to provide an estimate of intelligence relatively free of cultural and language influences - A paper-and-pencil procedure that covers three levels o ages 4–8 and mentally disabled adults o ages 8–12 and randomly selected adults o high-school age and above-average adults - Two Parallel forms are available - Standardization varies to age levels - Normative data from US, Western European Countries, and Australia - Culture Fair Test is viewed as an acceptable measure of fluid intelligence - RPM is still better because CFIT requires more work and norms are outdated