Chapter One: Introduction to Ethics PDF

**Chapter one** **1.1. Introduction to Ethics** Ethics is the set of criteria that distinguishes a human being from right or wrong. It is also a narrow sense of code of conduct. This is a guideline for employees working in the public sector to tell them whether their behavior is right or wrong. Wh...

**Chapter one** **1.1. Introduction to Ethics** Ethics is the set of criteria that distinguishes a human being from right or wrong. It is also a narrow sense of code of conduct. This is a guideline for employees working in the public sector to tell them whether their behavior is right or wrong. Which will tell them whether to take something or not. The objectivist-based definitions are all similar; they are deontological definitions. The following are two objectivist definitions of ethics: The normative standards of conduct derived from the philosophical and religious traditions of society. The attempt to state and evaluate principles by which ethical problems may solved. The classical scholastic definition of ethics is similar. Scholastic philosophers see ethics as the philosophical science that directs or guides voluntary human actions according to ultimate principles discovered by human reason alone. According to this definition, ethics is the science that relies on human reason to discover standards of conduct or morality that apply to all human beings. Ethicists devote their energies to discovering such standards of conduct or codes of moral behavior. **Definition and sources of ethical ideas** A general definition of ethics follows: Ethics a branch of philosophy which seeks to address question about morality. Ethics the rules that define moral conduct according to the ideology of specific group. Ethics refers to well-based standards of right and wrong that prescribe what humans ought to do, usually in terms of duties, principles, specifics virtues, or benefits to society. This definitions identifies four dimensions or sources of ethics, one based on the nature of public services 1\. duties: the behaviors expected of persons who occupy certain roles; that is, the obligation taken on when assuming a role or profession 2\. virtues: qualities that define what a good person is; moral excellence 3\. principles: fundamental truths that form the basis for behavior 4\. benefits to society: actions that produce the greatest good for the greatest number For persons who work in government and nonprofit organizations, duty has a special importance. They must serve the public, fulfill the expectations of public office and be trustees of public resources. Ethics: the process by which we clarify right and wrong and act on what we take to be rights, that is, a set or system of moral principles that is generally applied.  Ethics in Public Sector ethics is a branch of philosophy which seeks to address morality. In the public sector, ethics addresses the fundamental premise of a public administrators duty as a \"steward\" to the public ethics is a branch of philosophy which seeks to address morality. In the public sector, ethics addresses the fundamental premise of a public administrators duty as a \"steward\" to the public ethics. The branch of philosophical study that focuses on 'ethics' is concerned with studying and/or building up a coherent set of 'rules' or principles by which people ought to live. The theoretical study of ethics is not normally something that many people would regard as being necessary in order for them to conduct their everyday activities. In place of systematically examined ethical frameworks, most people instead carry around a useful set of day-to-day 'rules of thumb' that influence and govern their behavior; commonly, these include rules such as 'it is wrong to steal', 'it is right to help people in need', and so on. Ethics is a set of values as a guide, reference, guide what to do in carrying out its duties, but also serves as a standard to assess whether the nature, behavior, actions in the performance of the task is considered good or bad. Therefore, in ethics there is something of value that can give an assessment that something was said to be good or bad. Ethics a set of principles prescribing a behavior code that explains what is good and right or bad and wrong and outlines moral duty and obligations. Ethics is a branch of philosophy that is concerned with rightness or wrongness (morality or immorality) of human conduct or behavior. Ethics is the science of judging specifically human ends and the relationship of means to those ends. In some way it is also the art of controlling means so that they will serve human ends." --- Thomas Garret "'Ethics' is the discipline that examines one's moral standard or moral standards of society. It asks how those standards apply to our life and whether these standards are reasonable or unreasonable --- that is, whether these are supported by good reason or poor one." --- Manuel G. Velasquez "Ethics refer to a set of moral principles which should play a very significant role in guiding the conduct of managers and employees in the operation of any enterprise." --- Dale S. Beach "Ethics is that discipline which deals with what is good and bad and also deal with moral duty and obligation. Ethics are set of moral principles or values." --- Carol Buchholtz "Ethics is a conception of right and wrong conduct. Ethics tell us when our behaviour is moral and when it is moral. Ethics deal with fundamental human relationship how we think and behave towards others and how we want them to think and behave towards us." --- Post, Frederick, and Lawlrence "Ethics are formalized principles derived from social value. These are moral principle which originate from social value and represent rules for moral behavior and conduct of individuals or groups thereof carrying on business."  **Why we need ethics ?** - To maintain a good image - To be exemplary in society - To prevent abuse of power and authority - To maintain political neutrality - To ensure administrative efficiency - To preserve high standards of conduct - For the purpose of fairness in practice - For professional excellence **Areas of ethical study** There are three broad areas of ethical study: ** Meta-ethics,** which focuses on the meaning of ethical terms themselves (for instance, 'what is goodness?'), and on questions of how ethical knowledge is obtained (for instance, 'how can I distinguish what is good from what is bad?'), rather than on the more applied question of 'what should I do in a particular situation?'. Meta-ethics is therefore concerned with the nature of ethical properties, statements, attitudes and judgments. Meta-ethics examines such themes as what moral questions mean, and on what basis people can know what is 'true' or 'false'. ** Normative ethics,** in contrast, is the study of ethical acts. It therefore focuses explicitly on questions of 'what is the right thing to do?' in general. Normative ethics is concerned with questions of what people ought to do, and on how people can decide what the 'correct' moral actions to take are. ** Applied ethics,** which is concerned with how people can achieve moral outcomes in specific situations. Therefore, it is concerned with the philosophical examination of particular -- and often complex -- issues that involve moral judgments. Areas such as bioethics, environmental ethics, development ethics and business/corporate ethics may be regarded as areas of applied ethics. (The distinction between normative and applied ethics, however, is becoming increasingly blurred.) The area of meta-ethics is more of a 'pure', abstract or theoretical, field of study, whereas the areas of normative and applied ethics tend to focus more sharply on how ethical considerations relate to human actions in general (in the case of normative ethics) or in particular situations and contexts (in the case of applied ethics). Given that our interest is principally on the study of ethics in relation to environmental and development issues, it is the latter which will provide the most useful insights. Therefore, our focus will be primarily on questions that fall within the areas of normative and applied ethics. **1.2. Administrative ethics** **Administrative ethics:** denotes the professional code of morality in civil service. They constitute the moral fiber of civil servants. They regulate the conduct and behavior of different categories of civil servants. Thus, they provide rules of the game. Administrative ethics refers to for persons who work in government and non-profit organizations, duty has a special importance. They must serve the public, fulfill the expectations of public office, and be trustees of public resources. Administrative ethics can be defined as the principles and standards of right conduct for public servants. ‟ The civil service, being a profession in the modern state, has developed a code of morality for its members. This code consists of traditions, precedence, and standards which have to be kept up by the civil servants. The civil servants are expected to set up high moral standards not only for themselves but also for the community at large. This is more so in the context of the growing size and role of administration and its impact on the society. The various elements or components of administrative ethics are: 1\. Integrity 6. Humbleness 11. Neutrality 2\. Loyalty to the nation 7. Non- corruptiveness 12. Anonymity 3\. Honesty 8. Devotion to the duty 13. Impartiality 4\. Efficiency 9. Sense of public good 14. Fairness 5\. Non-partisan attitude 10. Secrecy 15. Sincerity The following points highlight the importance of (or, need for) administrative ethics: 1\. Check the arbitrary activities of civil servants 2\. Promote the sense of administrative responsibility 3\. Establish and promote the correct relations between the citizen and the civil service 4\. Cultivate high standards of conduct among civil servants 5\. Preserve and promote social welfare, public interest and common good 6\. Control that part of administrative power and discretion which cannot be controlled by formal laws, methods and procedures 7\. Improve the efficiency and effectiveness and administrative process 8\. Strengthen the legitimacy and credibility of public administration 9\. Stabilize and harmonize the relation between the civil servants and the political executives 10\. Foster and maintain high morals among all categories of civil servants The various factors, which hinder the observance of administrative ethics by the civil servants, can also be called factors for maladministration, pathologies or ethical dilemmas. These factors are stated as follows: 1\. Corruption 6. Departmentalism (bureau philosophy) 2\. Favoritism 7. Nepotism 3\. Bribery 8. Lawlessness 4\. Indifferentism 9. Political influence 5\. Officiousness 10. External pressures **1.3. Approaches to Study Ethics** Ethical issues are ones that involve the way things \"should be\" rather than the way things are. Ethics involve discussions of moral obligations, but do not necessarily hinge on religious overtones. There are several approaches that are considered in arriving at ethical solutions to dilemmas. **Utilitarian approach**   Focuses on the consequences that actions or policies have on the well-being ("utility") of all persons reasonably foreseen to be directly or indirectly (but rather immediately) affected by the action or policy. Keep in mind, that different people often identify benefits and harms differently. The principle states: "Of any two actions, the most ethical one will produce the greatest balance of benefits over harms." \"Ethical actions are those that provide the greatest balance of good over evil\". In order to take the utilitarian approach, the problem must be analyzed from several different perspectives, and the solutions to each must be contemplated to arrive at the one that favors the greater good. Utilitarianism is an ethical theory that determines right from wrong by focusing on outcomes. it is a form of consequentialism. What benefits and what harms will each course of action produce, and which alternative will lead to the best overall consequences? This question answers the dilemma of which option will produce the greatest benefits and least harm. Utilitarianism holds that the most ethical choice is the one that will produce the greatest good for the greatest number. It is the only moral framework that can be used to justify military force. It is also the most common approach to moral reasoning used in business because of the way in which it accounts for costs and benefits. The Utilitarian principle weights the net balance of goodness and harm produced by a certain action on a group of individuals, while these approach testes whether an action benefits a specific element of the common good. It encourages us to recognize how the freedoms and support we enjoy as individuals in pursuit of our own happiness are made possible by the sustained welfare of our community life. It invites us to ask what kind of society we are and want to become, and what actions we need to take to achieve that end. **The rights approach** The rights approach focused on the individual's right to choose for her or him. Identifies certain interests or activities that our behavior must respect, especially those areas of our lives that are of such value to us that they merit protection from others. Each person has a fundamental right to be respected and treated as a free and equal rational person capable of making his or her own decisions. This implies other rights (e.g., privacy free consent, freedom of conscience, etc.) that must be protected if a person is to have the freedom to direct his or her own life. Keep in mind that is often difficult to agree on exactly which rights we have. The principle states: "An action or policy is morally right only if those persons affected by the decision are not used merely as instruments for advancing some goal, but are fully informed and treated only as they have freely and knowingly consented to be treated." What moral rights do the affected parties have, and which course of action best represents those rights? The rights approach follows the belief that individuals have the ability to make their decisions freely. It believes that if it does not respect everyone's moral rights, it is wrong to act. The rights approach is predicated on the notion that humans have the right to choose paths which affect their destiny because they are human. Furthermore, humans are justified in their expectation that their rights should be respected. These rights include the right to the truth, the right of privacy, the right to not be injured, and the right to fulfillment of promises. The rights approach focuses on respect for human dignity. This approach holds that our dignity is based on our ability to choose freely how we live our lives, and that we have a moral right to respect for our choices as free, equal, and rational people, and a moral duty to respect others in the same way. This approach asks us to identify the legitimate rights of ourselves and others, in a given situation, as well as our duties and obligations. Consider how well the moral, legal, and contractual rights of everyone are respected and /or protected by the action, and assess how well those affected are treated as fully informed. Some of these rights are articulated in the U.S constitution and the Bill rights such as: life, liberty, and the pursuit of happiness; free speech and assembly; freedom of religion; property ownership; and to freely enter into contractual agreements and the right to receive whatever was contractually agreed. Other rights might include the right to privacy, to be informed truthfully on matters that affect our choices and to be safe from harm and injury, etc. **Fairness or justice approach** Which course of action treats everyone the same, except where there is a morally justifiable reason not to, and does not show favoritism or discrimination? This approach gives the individual the opportunity to reflect if the action is fair to the people.\ The fairness approach assumes that people should be treated equally regardless of their station in life, that is, they should not be subject to discrimination. The fairness approach focuses on the fair and equitable distribution of good and harm, and the social benefits and social costs, across the spectrum of society. It starts with premise that all equals should be treated equally, and those who are unequal due to relevant differences, should be treated differently in a manner that is fair and proportionate to with, their difference. Focuses on how fairly or unfairly our actions distribute benefits and burdens among the members of a group. Fairness requires consistency in the way people are treated. The principle states: "Treat people the same unless there are morally relevant differences between them." **The common good approach** Presents a vision of society as a community whose members are joined in a shared pursuit of values and goals they hold in common. The community is comprised of individuals whose own good is inextricably bound to the good of the whole. The principle states: "What is ethical is what advances the common good." The common good approach suggests that ethical actions are those that benefit all members of the community. The common good approach regards all individuals all as part of a larger community. As such, we share certain common conditions and institution upon which our welfare depends. **The virtue approach** Focuses on attitudes, dispositions, or character traits that enable us to be and to act in ways that develop our human potential. Examples might be: honesty, courage, faithfulness, trustworthiness, integrity, etc. Keep in mind, different communities may identify differing virtues. The principle states: "What is ethical is what develops moral virtues in ourselves and our communities." The virtue approach describes an assumption that there are higher orders of goodness to which man should aspire, and that only moral actions will help us achieve that higher level. Virtue approach character based approach to morality assumes that we acquire virtue through ethics. By practicing being honest, brave, just, generous, and so on, a person develops an honorable and moral character. **1.4. Ethics of Public Administration** The use of public administration ethical terms is ambiguous. The term can mean as a science that discusses the ethical (moral) principles that underlie the actions of the government bureaucracy apparatus, especially in carrying out its duties and authority. In addition, there is another definition, namely the ethics of public administration as \"a set of values that become the reference or guide for human action in the organization\". While according to Chandler and Plano (1982) the ethics of public administration is defined as follows: Ethics is the rules or standards governing, the moral conduct of the members of an organization or management profession\", or in other words is the rules or standard of management which become a moral direction for public administrators in performing their duties to serve the public. Within the scope of public services, public administration ethics is defined as the philosophy and professional standard (code of ethics) or the right rules of conduct that should be obeyed by public service providers or public administrations (Pasolong, 2007: 193). Thus it can be concluded that the ethics of public administration are rules or standards of management, moral direction for members of the organization or management work; Rules or standard of management which is the moral direction for public administrators in performing their duties to serve the community. The rules or standards in the country\'s administrative ethics relate to personnel, supplies, finance, administration, and public relations. **The Importance of Public Administration** **Ethics** The importance of such public administration ethics is as follows (Henry, 1995: 400). The first is the reason for the public interest that must be fulfilled by the government, because the government has the responsibility in providing services. The government is expected to professionally carry out its duties and must take appropriate political decisions about who gets what, how much, where, when, and so on. In fact, the fact shows that the government does not have guidance or moral code of ethics adequately. The assumption that all government apparatus are those who have been tested and always defend the interests of the public or society is not always true. Many cases prove that personal interests, families, groups, parties and even higher structures dictate the behavior of a bureaucrat or government apparatus. The bureaucrat in this case has no \"independence\" in ethical action, or in other words, there is no \"ethical autonomy.\" The second reason is more about the environment within the bureaucracy that provides the service itself. The third reason concerns the characteristics of the public that are sometimes so varied that it requires special treatment. Hiring public servants using the principle of \"conformity between the person and his job\" is a principle that needs to be questioned ethically, because that principle will result in injustice, in which the employed candidate comes only from a relatively more advanced region. The fourth reason is the opportunity to take action against the prevailing ethics of public service delivery. Public service is not as simple as imagined, or in other words, its complexity is both about the value of the service itself and of how to deliver the public service itself. This complexity and underpinning encourage public service providers to take professional measures based on \"discretion\". And this freedom often leads government officials to act not in accordance with the code of ethics or guidance of existing behavior. Ethics ensures that the public receives what it needs in a fair manner. It also gives the administration guidelines for integrity in their operations. That integrity, in turn, helps foster the trust of the community. By creating this atmosphere of trust, the administration helps the public understand that they are working with their best interests in mind. Additionally, a code of ethics creates standards of professionalism that co-workers in the public sector can expect from each other --- the public can also expect the same from their leaders. With a strong code of ethics in public administration, leaders have the guidelines they need to carry out their tasks and inspire their employees and committees to enforce laws in a professional and equitable manner. Another positive outcome of good ethics in public administration is timely and informative communication with the community. This kind of transparency builds trust and prevents or minimizes the potential issues that can arise when information is divulged from outside sources. If there is something of consequence that the public needs to know about, it's better for it to come directly from the leaders and administration. Communication also keeps all parties involved so that they can all work toward a common goal. Good communication ensures that the community can engage their leaders on important issues. **1.5. Ethics and Governance** Governance refers to \"all of processes of governing, whether undertaken by a government, market or network, whether over a family, tribe, formal or informal organization or territory and whether through the laws, norms, power or language\" (Bevir, 2013). Besides that, governance also relates to the processes of interaction and decision-making among the actors involved in a collective problem that lead to the creation, reinforcement, or reproduction of social norms and institutions (Hufty, 2011). Stoker (1998: 17-18) describes governance refers to the development of governing styles in which boundaries between and within public and private sectors have become blurred. The essence of governance is its focus on mechanisms that do not rest on recourse to the authority and sanctions of government.... Governance for (some) is about the potential for contracting, franchising and new forms of regulation. In short, it is about what (some) refer to as the new public management. However, governance... is more than a new set of managerial tools. It is also about more than achieving greater efficiency in the production of public services. Peters and Pierre (1998: 232) agree, saying that governance is about process. Governance is ultimately concerned with creating the conditions for ordered rule and collective action (Stoker, 1998; Peters and Pierre, 1998; Milward and Provan, 2000). As Stoker (1998: 17) notes, the outputs of governance are not different from those of government; it is instead a matter of a difference in processes. Governance refers to the development of governing styles in which boundaries between and within public and private sectors have become blurred. The essence of governance, and its most troublesome aspect, according to its critics, is a focus on mechanisms that do not rest on recourse to the authority and sanctions of government (Bekke, et.al, 1995; Peters and Pierre, 1998; Stoker, 1998; Rhodes, 1996, 1997). Public administration, not only is not independent in its work, but it is running and related in a pyramidal shape to politics. It certainly has its influence on Good Governance in the country. There are not a few cases of intervention by the government officials directly in the working management, on the rights and responsibilities that employees or their dependents have been assigned by law. This situation has imposed preferential choices to the detriment of general interest. One of the essential characteristics and qualities of public service work in a modern democracy and also one of the political environment's elements is the accentuation of public responsibility. This can be easily expressed in general terms and it seems clear that the forms of accountability are important to any political system, though in practice it is complicated. Accountability of public administration begins with the execution of official duties in strict accordance with the Constitution and the law. Only in these conditions, public administration employees will perform their duties conscientiously and professionally by putting themselves more and better in the service of the community. Application of ethical principles in the relations with people approaches the administration more and more to the problems they have, by increasing the value and confidence in their state. Consequently, we will have a high professional level in coping with the needs of people as well as an increase of the public interest for the Good Governance of the country. We will stop at two elements of the political environment, related to the role of the country\'s constitution and public accountability. Both have a particular impact in the understanding of ethics in public service for citizens. The various ethical principles in government administration are: 1\. Responsibility This ethical principle involves the desire of a bureaucratic apparatus to assume the obligation with full responsibility, and strong ties to perform all tasks and work satisfactorily. The bureaucratic apparatus must have a great desire to carry out its functions effectively, fully, and in the most satisfying way. Accountability is directed to the people, institutions and their direct supervisors. The tendency to relinquish responsibility or willingness to throw responsibilities to others, or the habit of proposing \"just following orders\" should be eliminated from every good bureaucratic apparatus. Every bureaucratic apparatus must be prepared to assume accountability about what it does. They are should not be stuck on the excuse that he/she is merely following the instructions or implementing the government\'s policies. 2\. Devotion Devotion is a harsh desire to carry out the tasks of work with all the energy (mind and muscle or mental and physical), all passionate zeal, and full of selfless concerns of a personal nature such as wanting to be promoted or merged. Every bureaucratic apparatus in the execution of its duties must always and continuously show the involvement of self (involvement of self) and full of enthusiasm. The tendency to work halfheartedly or carelessly should not exist within any good bureaucratic apparatus. This devotion is directed to their position, expertise, and profession. 3\. Loyalty This ethical principle is the awareness of an officer to be sincerely obedient to the goals of the nation, the constitution of the state, the legislation, the agency, the duties of office and the superior for the achievement of mutual ideals. The execution of duplicate job duties, profit or loss considerations or even with the habit of sabotage should not be known in any good bureaucratic apparatus. If a bureaucratic apparatus is unable to carry out their duties in full capacity, not willing to be bound by his agency or not being compatible with the wisdom of his boss, then the ethical action is to resign from office. 4\. Sensitivity This ethical principle reflects the willingness and ability of a bureaucratic apparatus to pay attention to and alert to new developments, changing circumstances, and needs that arise in the life of the community from time to time with the best efforts to respond. Attitudes that do not care, as long as the routine task has been completed, or do not want to laboriously renewed, must also be removed from the self. 5\. Equality One of the principal virtues of government bodies aimed at serving all peoples and serving the common good is fair treatment. The fair treatment can usually be realized by giving equal treatment without discrimination or favoritism to all parties. So equality in treatment, service, and devotion must be given by every bureaucratic apparatus to the public regardless of relatives, political ties, genetic origin or social standing. The arbitrary or personal discrimination of treatment shall not be exercised by any fair bureaucratic apparatus. 6\. Equity The equality of treatment of all parties as an ethical principle does not always achieve justice and fairness. Issues and needs in the community are so diverse that it requires different treatment as long as it is based on fair judgment or the right reason. Thus, with respect to a particular group and for a given situation it is necessary to treat the same. But against another group and under different special conditions it may be necessary to have unequal treatment. For that reason to be considered is propriety. The principle of propriety refers to a matter which is appropriate according to the moral or ethical considerations that apply in people\'s lives. **1.6. Ethics in public services** The public service refers to the arm of government whose responsibility is the implementation of government policies and programmes in accordance with the established rules and procedures. It includes all government institutions, civil service, corporations or state-owned enterprises, agencies, commissions, services of national and extra- minister- ministerial departments. Ethics in public service is about the practical application of the moral standards in governance. According to Chapman (2002), ethics refers to how an individual feels about behaving properly. It is about values and their application in a given context. The major factor that affects our understanding of public service's ethics is the meaning of the political environment that provides the framework for public services and that conditionates its practice. Particularly in countries with new democracies, the political environment cannot be marked as the main factor, but as the determining factor. **Elements of public services ethics** **Accountability** **Ethical behavior** **Control systems** **Standard setting** **Monitoring** **Self-control vs. External control** **What to control**