Chapter 9: Social Work with Aboriginal Peoples PDF

11/30/23, 10:36 AM Thompson Learn.   (/account/dashboard) DIGITAL TEXTBOOK Chapter 9: (/resource Social Work with Aboriginal Peoples   Notes ce/20/nodes/654/annotations) Media (/resource/20/nodes/654/studentfiles) (/r —Chief Justice Beverley McLachlin  https://learn.thompsonbooks....

11/30/23, 10:36 AM Thompson Learn.   (/account/dashboard) DIGITAL TEXTBOOK Chapter 9: (/resource Social Work with Aboriginal Peoples   Notes ce/20/nodes/654/annotations) Media (/resource/20/nodes/654/studentfiles) (/r —Chief Justice Beverley McLachlin  https://learn.thompsonbooks.com/resource/20/nodes/654/read  1/39 11/30/23, 10:36 AM Thompson Learn. Indigenous peoples include the Métis, the Inuit, and First Nations. Chapter author: Elizabeth Fast and H. Monty Montgomery PAGE #275 ndigenous peoples in Canada comprise 4.3 percent of Canada’s total population. They include the Métis, the Inuit, and First Nations. Many endure conditions found only in the poorest countries of the world. A 2013 study by the Canadian Centre for Policy Alternatives and Save the Children Canada found that the poverty rate of status First Nations children living on reserves was triple that of non-Indigenous children (Macdonald and Wilson, 2013). The situation is not only unjust, it is a national disgrace. Much remains to be done to reverse the damage done to Indigenous communities across Canada, which can be traced back to the history of colonialism by European settlers imposed upon the original inhabitants of this land. Social workers, Indigenous and non-Indigenous alike, will play an important part in this healing process. The urgency of addressing this national problem cannot be understated.   In this chapter, you will learn how to… https://learn.thompsonbooks.com/resource/20/nodes/654/read 2/39 11/30/23, 10:36 AM Thompson Learn. identify the Indigenous peoples of Canada and give examples of their cultural and linguistic diversity explain the adverse effects of colonialism, the residential school system, the Sixties Scoop, and other negative events on Canada’s Indigenous peoples analyze the meaning of “cultural genocide” in the context of Canada’s Indigenous peoples explain the systemic factors underlying the serious problem of murdered and missing Indigenous women and girls in Canada describe attempts to address the historic trauma experienced by Canada’s Indigenous peoples, including the Truth and Reconciliation Commission explain how the Touchstones of Hope movement offers a means of reconciliation in child welfare services across Canada describe some national organizations and grassroots movements dedicated to furthering Indigenous rights and self-government discuss the promise and the challenges related to post-secondary education for Indigenous young people describe how social workers can serve as advocates and allies to members of Indigenous communities explain key principles and approaches in social work with Indigenous communities in both urban and remote settings Key Concepts   Indigenous peoples https://learn.thompsonbooks.com/resource/20/nodes/654/read 3/39 11/30/23, 10:36 AM Thompson Learn. Indian Act of 1876 Colonialism Land-cession treaties Indian Agent Scrip system Disc list system Residential school system Assimilationist policies Sixties Scoop Royal Commission on Aboriginal Peoples (RCAP) Indian Residential Schools Settlement Agreement (IRSSA) Truth and Reconciliation Commission (TRC) Indigenous self-government Urban Aboriginal Peoples Survey (UAPS-2010) Focusing Question What does “reconciliation” involve in the context of social work practice with Indigenous peoples?   Who Are Canada’s Indigenous Peoples? PAGE 6 https://learn.thompsonbooks.com/resource/20/nodes/654/read 4/39 11/30/23, 10:36 AM Thompson Learn. PAGE #276 Indigenous peoples (often synonymous with “Aboriginal peoples”) are the original inhabitants of the portion of the North American landmass known as Canada. “Indigenous” and “Aboriginal” are collective terms which include the First Nations, Inuit, and Métis peoples. The term “Indian” is widely believed to have originated with the early explorers who thought they had reached India in their search for a passage to the east. Whether this is true or not, today the term is used to define a group of Indigenous people registered as such according to the Indian Act. Menno Ill-Intentioned Policies Boldt notes that the term Indian “serves In the eighteenth and nineteenth the Canadian government as a centuries, newcomers to what is now convenient political, legal, and Canada moved farther and farther administrative categorization of the culturally diverse first peoples of Canada” (1993, 192). It is used in much the same way as “native,” as a means of “outsidenaming” those “who are descendants of the first inhabitants of what is now Canada.” The term “Aboriginal” (and westward, seeking land for agriculture and homesteads. This migration caused increasing displacement and conflict for the Indigenous peoples who lived on the land. The presence of Indigenous peoples on the lands desired by the settlers demanded a response from the European governments. The land’s original inhabitants were seen as “the Indian increasingly, the term “Indigenous”) problem,” and impediments to “appears to be associated with a general, “civilization.” Government officials emerging emancipation of Aboriginal https://learn.thompsonbooks.com/resource/20/nodes/654/read   devised various schemes to address the problem, including land-cession treaties 5/39 11/30/23, 10:36 AM Thompson Learn. peoples from domination of all sorts by the settler society” (Chartrand, 1991: 3–4). Of course, these peoples have their own names in their respective languages, such and assimilationist policies. Such schemes came at an exorbitant cost to the original inhabitants, in terms of the loss of Indigenous lives and ways of living. as Anishinabe, Inuit, Innu, Nuu-chahnulth, and Métis. First Nations, Inuit, and Métis The First Nations include culturally, linguistically, and geographically diverse groups of people—some examples are the Cree, Dene, and Mi’kmaq peoples. The Indian Act of 1876 sought strictly to define who would be considered an Indian so as to exert government authority over Aboriginal peoples. The Act fragmented the Aboriginal population into distinct groups with different rights, restrictions, and obligations. Because of the Indian Act and the significance of the Indian Register, the term “Indian” is still used in a legal context and usually defines a person as being either a Status or nonStatus Indian. Status Indians are persons of Aboriginal ancestry who are registered as Indians according to the Indian Act. Non-Status Indians are not, or have lost the right to be, registered as Indians as defined by the Act, but identify with the Indian community culturally and/or linguistically. Individuals who are “Indians” within this context are also First Nations people. The Inuit are Aboriginal peoples of Canada “that have traditionally used and occupied, and currently use and occupy, the lands and waters ranging from  the Yukon and Northwest Territories to northern Québec (Nunavik) and  Labrador (Nunatsiavut) (INAC and Tungavik, 1993: 4). April 1, 1999, marked the creation of Nunavut, a new territory created from the eastern part of the https://learn.thompsonbooks.com/resource/20/nodes/654/read 6/39 11/30/23, 10:36 AM Thompson Learn. Northwest Territories. The agreement between the Inuit of Nunavut and the federal government recognizes that the Inuit are best able to define who is an Inuk (or member of the Inuit peoples) according to their own understanding of themselves. The term “Métis” is most often used to refer to descendants of the historic Métis—those whose origin can be traced back to the Red River in the early 1800s. Now located mainly in the prairies and the north, they formed a language and culture that was a unique blend of Indian and European cultures (Purich, 1988). On April 14, 2016, the Supreme Court of Canada ruled that both non-Status Indians and Métis are now considered “Indians” under the Constitution. This means that both groups are now the responsibility of the federal government and not the provinces. Although this decision is being hailed as a victory by those affected, its repercussions on new federal funding opportunities for Métis and non-Status Indians remain to be seen. Contact with Europeans PAGE #277 When Europeans began to arrive on this continent, Indigenous peoples numbered between 500,000 and 2 million. They Indigenous peoples Collective term for the original inhabitants of Canada: First Nations, Inuit, and Métis. The terms “Indigenous” lived a wide variety of lifestyles, and “Aboriginal” are often used depending on the natural resources interchangeably. available to them. The oral traditions of some Indigenous cultures assert that the pre-contact population was even greater than the estimates of anthropologists and   historians. Across Canada, there were approximately 50 Indigenous languages spoken, which made up 11 main language https://learn.thompsonbooks.com/resource/20/nodes/654/read 7/39 11/30/23, 10:36 AM Thompson Learn. groups. Within each Indigenous language, Indian Act of 1876 there are several dialects. For example, Legislation that provides the Government the Algonkian (or Algonquian) language of Canada with a legal framework of group includes the Ojibwa language, authority over Indians and lands reserved which in turn includes the Saulteaux, Odawa, Potawatomi, and other dialects. Indigenous nations were also characterized by diverse systems of governance, health care practices, and for Indians. The main purpose of the Act was to control and regulate Indian lives. An “Indian” is a person who is registered or entitled to be registered in the Indian Register (a centralized record), also referred to as a “status Indian.” cultural and spiritual rituals. These social aspects were not separated into functionally specialized institutions, but were organized holistically. Such social organization usually included some formal means by which different nations agreed to coexist. Some, such as the Haudenosaunee (Iroquois) or the Mi’kmaq, formed confederacies. Much of Indigenous history is based on unwritten oral accounts passed down over generations. These accounts often contain spiritual concepts foreign to European experience. The relationship between Indigenous peoples and Europeans was initially friendly. During the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries, Indigenous peoples served as partners in exploration and trade. Later, as the English and French became locked in a struggle to control North America, the relationship with the Indigenous peoples evolved into military alliances. As European peoples and their governments exerted dominance over territories that had been inhabited by Indigenous peoples, they were no longer seen as military allies,   but were gradually viewed as irrelevant, or worse, as an obstacle to imperial domination (Miller, 1989: 84). https://learn.thompsonbooks.com/resource/20/nodes/654/read 8/39 11/30/23, 10:36 AM Thompson Learn. The “Numbered Treaties” are eleven treaties signed between 1871 and 1921. Numbers 1-7 (1871-77) were key in advancing European settlement across the Prairies and the Canadian Pacific Railway. For Numbers 9-11 (1899-1921), resource extraction was the government’s main motive. Source: Map of Numbered Treaties of Canada. Borders are approximated. Wikimedia Commons. Canada location map.svg. Modifications made by Themightyquill. The Colonialization of Indigenous Peoples PAGE #278 The policy subsequently adopted by the settlers, best described as colonialism, amounted to an attempt to completely subjugate the Indigenous peoples and to annihilate their cultures. Colonialism Forced political domination of one nation over another, including administrative,   economic, and cultural control The Indian Act https://learn.thompsonbooks.com/resource/20/nodes/654/read 9/39 11/30/23, 10:36 AM Thompson Learn. With the signing of land-cession Indian Agent treaties in the later nineteenth century, A government agent who administered the government of Canada changed its the Indian Act, interfering in virtually relationship with the continent’s first every aspect of Native life. Indian Agents inhabitants. “The intention of the civil government, now that Indians no longer were militarily useful, was to concentrate had extraordinary administrative and discretionary powers, and were meant to displace traditional Aboriginal leaders so as to institute a new way of living Indians in settled areas, or reserves; to consistent with the assimilationist subject them to as much proselytization, intentions of the Canadian federal schooling, and instruction in agriculture government. as ‘circumstances’ made necessary” (Miller, 1989: 100). The legal instrument for colonialization was the Indian Act. Canada today is one of the few countries to still have separate laws for a specific group based on race or ethnicity. The Indian Act was, and still is, a piece of social legislation of very broad scope that regulates and controls virtually every aspect of the lives of Indigenous peoples. Historically, an Indian Agent administered the Act in Indigenous communities. These agents were to displace traditional Indigenous leaders so as to institute a new way of living consistent with the intentions of the Canadian government at the time. The Indian Agents had extraordinary administrative and discretionary powers. In order to ensure this, Clause 25 of the Act established the government’s guardianship over Indian lands. The Indian Act, still in force, certainly seems to be wildly out of step with the  bulk of Canadian law. It singles out a segment of society (largely on thebasis of race) removes much of their land and property from the commercial https://learn.thompsonbooks.com/resource/20/nodes/654/read 10/39 11/30/23, 10:36 AM Thompson Learn. mainstream, and gives the Minister of Indigenous and Northern Affairs and other government officials a degree of discretion that is not only intrusive but frequently offensive. Many want the Act abolished because it violates normative standards of equality; others want First Nations to be able to make their own decisions and see the Act as inhibiting that freedom. Even within its provisions, others see unfair treatment between, for example, Indians who live on reserves and those who reside elsewhere. In short, this is a statute of which few speak well. However, for fear of losing much-needed special status, some Indigenous groups seek to protect the Act.  https://learn.thompsonbooks.com/resource/20/nodes/654/read  11/39 11/30/23, 10:36 AM Thompson Learn. Land Treaties PAGE #279 While land treaties differed in their terms and complexity, they generally aimed to force Indigenous peoples to surrender land to the Canadian government. The major treaties were signed in the West, starting with Treaty No. 1 in 1871 and ending with Treaty No. 10 in 1906. (Treaty No. 11 was signed in the Far North.) These ten treaties allowed the vast territories of the West to be settled and the Canadian Pacific Railway to be constructed. It is important to note that no treaties were signed between the First Nations of Québec, the Maritimes, and most of British Columbia. In fact, almost half of the population of Registered Indians did not sign land treaties. Treaties and other land claims are now disputed across the country. Assimilationist Policies The social control aspects of the Indian Act placed Canada’s First Nations firmly in the position of a colonized people. The Act spelled out a process of enfranchisement, whereby Indians could acquire full Canadian citizenship only by relinquishing their ties to their community; that is, by giving up their culture and traditions and any rights to land. Thus, the cost of Canadian citizenship demanded of an Aboriginal person far surpassed that for an immigrant to Canada. The Canadian government saw the Indian Act as a temporary measure to control Indigenous peoples until they had been fully assimilated through enfranchisement. (Assimilation refers to the absorbing of one cultural group into another.) It was not until 1960, however, that the federal government granted First Nations the right to vote in federal elections. This decision was important in that both enfranchised and non-enfranchised Indigenous peoples now had the right to vote in federal elections. For the first time, citizenship for Indigenous peoples was not conditional upon their   assimilation into mainstream Canadian society. Despite this move, however, the federal government remained opposed to Indigenous self-government. https://learn.thompsonbooks.com/resource/20/nodes/654/read 12/39 11/30/23, 10:36 AM The Reserve System PAGE #280 Once land was ceded and Canadian settlements had been established, Aboriginal peoples were shunted aside onto small parcels of land largely devoid Thompson Learn. Scrip system A system intended to extinguish the Aboriginal title of the Métis by awarding a certificate redeemable for land or money, depending on their age and status of any economic potential. This land could not even be used as collateral to develop business ventures, since that land was held “in trust” by the government. It has been argued that by confining Aboriginal peoples to reserves, Inuit communities, and Métis settlements the welfare of Aboriginal societies was systematically neglected. Famines and tuberculosis were allowed to virtually decimate Aboriginal communities, unaided except for relocation of survivors to state institutions. Housing provided was of the poorest quality, and health care and education were, until quite recently, left to the Church. (Scott, 1994: 7) The federal government then established the Department of Indian Affairs as the   main vehicle to regulate and control Aboriginal movement and ways of living. The modern equivalent of the https://learn.thompsonbooks.com/resource/20/nodes/654/read 13/39 11/30/23, 10:36 AM Thompson Learn. department is known as Indigenous and Disc list system Northern Affairs Canada (INAC), and its A government-sponsored identification stated mission is to support Aboriginal program for the Inuit that assigned a communities in their quest to become numbered disc to each Inuk, which healthy, safe, and economically self- ultimately affected all aspects of Inuit life sufficient. The Métis and the Inuit The situation among the Métis in the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries was unique. The Métis in western Canada could seek to become status Indians by aligning themselves to certain treaty areas or they could “take scrip.” The scrip system entitled the bearer of a scrip certificate to either land or money; in exchange, the person who took scrip gave up all further claims to land. Although the scrip system offered to the Métis was different from the treatymaking process for First Nations, the result was the same. Neither Métis nor First Nations were treated fairly (Purich, 1988). The Indian Act also governed the Inuit.   No land was formally set aside for their use, nor were any treaties signed with the Inuit peoples. However, because of the https://learn.thompsonbooks.com/resource/20/nodes/654/read 14/39 11/30/23, 10:36 AM Thompson Learn. extensive mineral and oil exploration on The Sixties Scoop their lands, many Inuit communities The massive removal of Indigenous have been relocated, forcing a substantial children from their families and change in their lifestyles. communities and their placement in non- One event that fostered deep distrust on homes, which took place primarily in the the part of Inuit people toward the Indigenous foster homes and adoptive 1960s Canadian government was the 1950s Inuit relocation experiment from Northern Quebec’s Ungava peninsula to Ellesmere and Cornwallis Islands in the High Arctic. In 1953 and 1955, the Canadian government forcibly relocated eleven Inuit families from the Port Harris region and four families from Pond Inlet to new communities at Grise Fiord and Resolute Bay. The relocated families suffered great hardship in the new region, however, despite the Canadian government’s promises of improved hunting and trapping. Hunting and shelter were scarce, winters were darker, and because only a few youth were brought into the new community, partnership options were limited. Many Inuit individuals perished during the beginning of the relocation experiment, although most survived through fierce adaptation. Another example of the paternalistic nature of state intervention in Inuit lives is the disc list system. As bureaucrats could not, or perhaps would not, acknowledge Inuktitut names, the disc list system assigned a numbered disc to each Inuk. Although originating as an administrative measure in the 1920s and not universally employed, the disc list system ultimately came to define a quasi-legal status that affected all aspects of Inuit life. By the 1960s,   however, “it was evident that Government’s attempts to implement a ‘disc list’ system was largely a failure” (Smith, 1992). https://learn.thompsonbooks.com/resource/20/nodes/654/read 15/39 11/30/23, 10:36 AM Thompson Learn. Cultural Genocide—The Systematic Disruption of Indigenous Societies PAGE #281 Most Canadians are aware of the forced removal of Indigenous children from their communities and reserves and their placement in church-run, governmentfunded residential schools, which operated from the 1870s to the 1990s and were designed to assimilate the students A Legacy of Harm into mainstream society. But fewer have Indigenous people represent 4.3 percent heard the term “Sixties Scoop,” coined by of the Canadian population, yet in 2016 a social worker who reported in a they represented 25 percent of the government study that it was common practice in British Columbia in the mid1960s to “scoop” almost all newborns from their mothers on reserves. Advocates say the removal of these children from their communities had inmates in federal prisons. The percentages are even higher for females, and for most provincial jails. This overrepresentation occurs at virtually every stage of the justice system. In 2015, the Truth and Reconciliation Commission called for the federal devastating consequences, including high government to build more healing lodges rates of depression, suicide , poverty, low and expand Indigenous-specific programs education, unemployment, and incarceration. The Residential School System inside and outside our correctional institutions. The Commission also called for the creation of Indigenous justice systems to The now-infamous residential school deal with criminal conduct in ways that system was established in the mid-1800s address the underlying causes  of such  by Indian Affairs in conjunction with behaviours. several Christian churches. By restricting Indigenous culture and language, the schools sought to fulfill the https://learn.thompsonbooks.com/resource/20/nodes/654/read 16/39 11/30/23, 10:36 AM Thompson Learn. assimilationist policies of the federal government. The children were denied their language, spiritual rituals, and more importantly, access to their families. Indigenous children were regularly subjected to emotional and physical abuse, and many were also victims of sexual abuse. As a result of having resided within an institution that regulated every aspect of their lives, these individuals had impaired decision-making skills: “residential schools were no preparation for life in any type of community” (Armitage, 1993: 142). Some struggled with drug and alcohol use and problems with mental health that arose from the psychological trauma they had endured. Many found themselves with a limited ability to parent their own children, as parenting models had been unavailable to them. While many individuals who emerged from these institutions retained a positive outlook, a true testament to their adaptability and resilience, it must be stressed that the residential school experience systematically damaged many Indigenous children and families. This legacy will take many generations to heal. The Sixties Scoop In 1951, the Indian Act was amended such that provincial laws of application (and therefore child welfare legislation) applied to reserves (Timpson, 1990). With this legislative change, the government’s approach to Indigenous assimilation veered from residential schools toward the apprehension and placement of Indigenous children in non-Indigenous foster homes. Child welfare agencies also assumed responsibility for services to Indigenous communities.  One result is what is known as the Sixties Scoop. In the 1960s, massive  numbers of children were removed from their communities and placed in non-Indigenous foster and adoptive homes. By the late 1970s and early 1980s, https://learn.thompsonbooks.com/resource/20/nodes/654/read 17/39 11/30/23, 10:36 AM Thompson Learn. at any given time, one in seven Status Indian children was not in the care of his or her parents, and as many as one in four Status Indian children was spending at least some time away from the parental home (Armitage 1993, 147). The Sixties Scoop was widely condemned in the mid-1980s after ongoing criticism that included a judicial inquiry, headed by Manitoba Judge Edwin Kimelman. The inquiry led to policy changes signalling a need for more culturally sensitive legislation and a move toward Indigenous-controlled child and family service agencies. “Cultural genocide has taken place in a systematic, routine manner,” Kimelman wrote. “The miracle is that there were not more children lost in this system run by so many well-intentioned people. The road to hell was paved with good intentions, and the child welfare system was the paving contractor.”  https://learn.thompsonbooks.com/resource/20/nodes/654/read  18/39 11/30/23, 10:36 AM Thompson Learn. Residential Schools PAGE #282 Children in residential schools were severely punished if they acknowledged their Indigenous culture or spoke their own language. Sometimes siblings were forbidden from even greeting one another. Additionally, residential schools provided Indigenous students with an inferior education, often only up to grade five. From the 1990s onward, the Canadian government and the Anglican, Presbyterian, United, and Roman Catholic churches began to admit their responsibility for an education scheme that was designed not only to assert domination over Indigenous peoples but to eradicate their cultures. From the 1990s onward, the Canadian government and the Anglican, Presbyterian, United, and Roman Catholic churches began to admit their responsibility for an education scheme that was designed not only to assert domination over Indigenous peoples but to eradicate their cultures. On June 11, 2008, the Canadian government formally apologized in Parliament for the enduring damage done by the residential school system. The Legacy of the Residential Schools and the Sixties Scoop PAGE #283 In 1981, the federal government entered into agreements with the provinces, insisting that child and family services for Indigenous peoples adhere to provincial standards and regulations. Under this legislative mandate, many Indigenous child welfare agencies came to resemble mainstream service providers. While it was recognized that a distinctive Indigenous approach was required in order to redress the damage done over generations, the provincial welfare system did not foster it. Canadian child welfare authorities   subsequently recognized the damage caused by this approach, and the federal https://learn.thompsonbooks.com/resource/20/nodes/654/read 19/39 11/30/23, 10:36 AM Thompson Learn. government has made efforts to fund Water Advisories on First Nations Indigenous child welfare agencies and to Reserves Ignored develop Indigenous child and family service standards. Most Indigenous child welfare agencies have adopted placement protocols that specify placement preferences: first, with the extended family; second, with Indigenous members of the community with the same cultural and linguistic identification; and third, alternative Many people on First Nations reserves across Canada cannot trust the water they get from their taps. Contaminants include coliform, uranium, and carcinogenic trihalomethanes. In a report issued on June 7, 2016, Human Rights Watch (an international nongovernmental organization) says that, by not ensuring First Nations people access to safe water, “the Canadian government Indigenous caregivers. As a last resort, has violated a range of international placement is considered with non- human rights obligations.” Indigenous caregivers. The Sixties Scoop has given birth to what Source: Matthew McClearn (2016). Ottawa has human-rights obligation to provide safe water on reserves. The Globe and Mail (June 7). some call the “Millennium Scoop,” referring to the high rates of Indigenous children in care today. According to Statistics Canada, of the 30,000 children aged 14 and under in Canadian foster care in 2011, almost half were Indigenous. These children are part of the legacy of disrupted parent-child bonds caused by past assimilationist practices such as the residential school system, which robbed generations of Indigenous peoples of their language, their heritage, their personal histories, and their cultural identity.  https://learn.thompsonbooks.com/resource/20/nodes/654/read  20/39 11/30/23, 10:36 AM Thompson Learn. Figure 9.1 Over-representation in the Canadian justice system today is one consequence of the residential schools, the Sixties Scoop, and the attempted systematic disruption of Indigenous societies. (Note: Graph excludes British Columbia and Nunavut due to the unavailability of data.) Source: Correctional Services Program. (2015). Adult Correctional Statistics in Canada, 2013/2014. Statistics Canada, Ottawa, Ontario. Violence reflects systemic problems Missing and Murdered Indigenous Women https://learn.thompsonbooks.com/resource/20/nodes/654/read   21/39 11/30/23, 10:36 AM Thompson Learn. Attempts to Address Historic Trauma PAGE #286 Indigenous researchers have put forth the theory of “historic trauma” to describe the consequences of numerous stressors experienced by whole communities over generations, such as the trauma caused by residential schools in Canada. The theory argues that such traumatic events (and adaptive or maladaptive responses to it) eventually become imbedded in the Records of Resilience shared memories of Indigenous The newly opened National Centre for communities and are passed on to Truth and Reconciliation (NCTR) at the successive generations through University of Manitoba preserves a vast storytelling, community interaction and communication, and patterns of parenting. collection of documents, oral history, and other records that detail the systematic and intentional attempt to assimilate the Indigenous peoples of Canada. The Royal Commission on Aboriginal The Centre also contains incredible Peoples (RCAP) of 1996 brought accounts of strength and resilience in the together six years of research and public form of rich and dynamic stories from consultation on Aboriginal issues (Canada, 1996). It was the most comprehensive distillation of such Indigenous cultures that resisted every attempt to eliminate them from the Canadian landscape. material ever published, and provided a factual basis for beginning to address the historic trauma inflicted on Canada’s Indigenous peoples. Among other issues, the report examinedthe need for Indigenous peoples to heal from the consequences of domination, displacement, and assimilation. The RCAP concluded that the relationship between Aboriginal and non-Aboriginal peoples for the last 400 years has https://learn.thompsonbooks.com/resource/20/nodes/654/read 22/39 11/30/23, 10:36 AM Thompson Learn. been built on “false premises”: government policies, which were always presented as beneficial, have invariably resulted in harm. The foundation for a renewed relationship, according to the RCAP, involves recognizing Aboriginal nations as political entities. Unfortunately, many of the commission’s recommendations were never implemented. The Indian Residential Schools Settlement Agreement In 2007, another effort to address historic trauma was implemented. The settlement package between the Government of Canada, various Churches, and Canada’s Aboriginal peoples, called the Indian Residential Schools Settlement Agreement (IRSSA), is the largest class-action settlement in Canadian history. The agreement includes the following: A Common Experience Payment for all eligible former students of a recognized Indian Residential School, based on the number of years of residency ($10,000 for the first school year or portion thereof and $3,000 for each subsequent year) An Independent Assessment Process for claims of sexual and serious physical abuse; The Truth and Reconciliation Commission Commemoration Activities Measures to support healing, such as the Indian Residential Schools Resolution Health Support Program and an endowment to the Aboriginal Healing Foundation To achieve resolution regarding the residential schools experience, the Aboriginal Healing Foundation proposed that four components were   necessary: Acknowledgement. Naming the harmful acts and admitting that the acts were wrong. https://learn.thompsonbooks.com/resource/20/nodes/654/read 23/39 11/30/23, 10:36 AM Thompson Learn. Redress. Taking action to compensate for the harms inflicted. Healing. Restoring physical, mental, social/emotional, and spiritual balance in individuals, families, communities, and nations. Reconciliation. Accepting one another following injurious acts or periods of conflict and developing mutual trust. Perpetrators ask for, and victims offer, forgiveness as they acknowledge and accept the past and recognize one another’s humanity (Castellano, Archibald, and DeGagné, 2008: 385). In 2008, the federal government formally apologized to Indigenous peoples for the residential school system. The Truth and Reconciliation Commission PAGE #287 Following the announcement of the IRSSA, the newly-established Truth and Reconciliation Commission (TRC) spent six years travelling across Canada hearing from Indigenous persons who had been taken from their families as children and placed in residential schools. The TRC’s mandate was to create an accurate historic record about residential schools and their impact on former students, and then share this record with the public. Once the truth had been determined, the process of reconciliation could begin. In other words, “Now that we know about residential schools and their legacy, what do we do about it?“ The TRC’s final report was released in December 2015 and included 94 “calls to action”: sweeping changes to child welfare, education, and health-care systems; recognition of Indigenous language and cultural rights; an inquiry into missing and murdered Indigenous women; and changes to public institutions to give greater recognition and visibility to Indigenous   sovereignty and histories. In fact, one of the report’s main messages is that https://learn.thompsonbooks.com/resource/20/nodes/654/read 24/39 11/30/23, 10:36 AM Thompson Learn. too many Canadians know little or nothing about the deep historical roots of these conflicts. This lack of historical knowledge has serious consequences... In government circles, it makes for poor public policy decisions. In the public realm, it reinforces racist attitudes and fuels civic distrust between Aboriginal peoples and other Canadians (TRC, 2015: 8). In 2015, Prime Minister Justin Trudeau promised to implement all 94 of the TRC’s recommendations. This will require collaboration between provincial and federal governments, as well as a quick and efficient response by public institutions (McSheffrey, 2015). But it is a second chance to address the historic trauma caused by residential schools and to work toward reconciliation among former students, their families and communities, and all Canadians.  https://learn.thompsonbooks.com/resource/20/nodes/654/read  25/39 11/30/23, 10:36 AM Thompson Learn. Lorna Standingready (left) was one of several residential school survivors in attendance at the closing ceremony of the Indian Residential Schools Truth and Reconciliation Commission in Ottawa in 2015. Reconciliation in child welfare services Touchstones of Hope Toward Indigenous Self-Government and Protection of Rights PAGE #290 Indigenous peoples across Canada are finding their own voice and, with that, pursuing the goal of establishing political, financial, and moral control over their lives. A dialogue and partnership with the rest of Canada in addressing the issues facing their communities is slowly evolving, whether those communities are on traditional lands or within urban centres. Perhaps most important in this process is the reaffirmation of Indigenous rights to land, rights that are inextricably linked to the principle of Indigenous selfgovernment. Such an affirmation is one of the key recommendations of the Truth https://learn.thompsonbooks.com/resource/20/nodes/654/read The Assembly of First Nations  The Assembly of First Nations(AFN) was founded in 1982. It is the national organization representing First Nations in Canada, advocating for treaty rights, 26/39 11/30/23, 10:36 AM and Reconciliation Commission and the foremost demand of Indigenous leaders. Indigenous peoples are seeking the formal recognition of rights that already exist, rights that existed prior to the European incursions. An important factor today is the tenacious resistance on the part of Thompson Learn. economic development, education, languages and literacy, health, housing, social development, justice, taxation, land claims, and the environment. The AFN is made up of elected Chiefs who meet annually and who elect a National Chief every three years. The AFN is funded mainly by Indigenous and Northern Affairs Canada. Indigenous peoples, over a very long period of time, to all efforts to eradicate both them and their distinct ways of living. Also important are Indigenous economic development initiatives, the resurgence of Indigenous languages, the establishment of Indigenous education with a culturally based curriculum, the development of working models of Indigenous justice systems, and Indigenous control of social services that are no longer based exclusively on the mainstream social work model but are increasingly integrating an Indigenous approach to social work practice. All these developments create a path that will allow Indigenous people their rightful place in Canadian society. The resurgence of Indigenous political activism that began in the 1970s has helped advance this process of redefinition. It has led to the development of several national organizations representing and uniting distinct constituent groups. Among these organizations are: (1) the Assembly of First Nations, which represents First Nations in Canada; (2) the Inuit Tapiriit Kanatami, representing Canada’s Inuit population; (3) the Métis National Council; (4)  the Congress of Aboriginal Peoples, representing off-reserve Aboriginal  peoples; and (5) the Native Women’s Association of Canada. These organizations are generally affiliated with provincial/territorial and local groups that lobby the Canadian government to develop policies to protect https://learn.thompsonbooks.com/resource/20/nodes/654/read 27/39 11/30/23, 10:36 AM Thompson Learn. the rights and interests of Indigenous peoples—rights guaranteed in section 35 of the Canadian Charter of Rights and Freedoms. They also seek to educate governments and Canadians about the issues facing Indigenous peoples. Idle No More: A Grassroots Protest Movement In addition to national organizations, grassroots movements strive to uphold Indigenous rights. One such movement is Idle No More, an ongoing protest movement founded in December 2012. It comprises the First Nations, Métis, and Inuit peoples and their non-Indigenous supporters in Canada, and to a lesser extent, internationally. It began in November, 2012, when three First Nations women and one non-Native ally in Saskatchewan—Nina Wilson, Sheelah Mclean, Sylvia McAdam, and Jessica Gordon—held the first community teach-in about proposed omnibus federal legislation, Bill C-45. This bill threatened protection of water and forests and proposed the leasing of First Nations territory—which protesters perceived to be in the interests of the Northern Gateway pipeline project. Idle No More has involved a number of political actions worldwide, inspired in part by the liquid diet hunger strike of former Attawapiskat (First Nations) Chief Theresa Spence and further coordinated via social media. While round dances in malls, marches, hunger fasts on Victoria Island, and calls for resistance to fasttracked omnibus legislation have subsided, there is now more collective action led by Indigenous grassroots peoples throughout Canada than ever before. Reconciliation begins by closing the gap   Aboriginal Education https://learn.thompsonbooks.com/resource/20/nodes/654/read 28/39 11/30/23, 10:36 AM Thompson Learn. Healing and strengthening relationships Advocacy and Alliances Working with Urban Indigenous Populations PAGE #294 Many people assume that being Indigenous and urban living do not go together; however, many Indigenous people have lived in cities for generations. According to the 2011 census, 53 percent of Indigenous people (those identifying as First Nations, Métis, or Inuit) now live in Canadian cities. As of 2011, the largest urban Indigenous populations were in Winnipeg and Vancouver with 78, 415 and 52, 375 people respectively identifying as Indigenous Settler Racism in Montréal A needs assessment survey of urban Indigenous individuals living in Montréal found that most participants were unable to access traditional services in that city, (Statistics Canada, 2012; StatsCan, 2005). such as having access to Elders and The largest survey of urban Indigenous were not satisfied with how services in peoples is the Urban Aboriginal Peoples Montréal are administered, and reported Study (UAPS-2010), in which interviews were conducted with 2,614 individuals aged 18 or older who self-identified as ceremonies. Also, half of the service users feeling that Indigenous peoples were not involved in the management of their health services or treated as partners in their relationship with health-care   First Nations (Status or non-Status), providers (Montreal Urban Aboriginal Métis, or Inuit across ten cities in Health Committee (MUAHC), 2012). Canada, including Montréal. This https://learn.thompsonbooks.com/resource/20/nodes/654/read 29/39 11/30/23, 10:36 AM Thompson Learn. comprehensive study surveyed participants about issues such as place of origin, reasons for moving to urban locations, the importance of culture, and experiences with Indigenous and non-Indigenous service providers in urban locations (Environics Institute, 2010). The UAPS looked at generational differences among participants; Inuit (87 percent) were most likely to be first-generation residents, followed by Status First Nations people (75 percent), Métis (62 percent), and non-Status First Nations people (58 percent). Older people (77 percent of those aged 45 and older) were more likely than younger people (60 percent of those aged 18 to 24 and 64 percent of those aged 25 to 44) to be “first-generation” urban Indigenous peoples (Environics Institute, 2010). Among first-generation urban dwellers, the most frequently cited reasons that participants gave for moving to a city were to be closer to family and to pursue education and employment opportunities (Environics Institute, 2010). The Development of Urban Indigenous Organizations Urban Indigenous organizations first emerged as community clubs and then social service organizations in the 1950s. In the 1960s, there were only three “Indian and Métis Friendship Centres,” but by 1968, there were 26, and by 2002, there were 117 such organizations. The clubs were said to provide a sense of community, a meeting place, and a more visible Indigenous presence in urban areas (Newhouse and Peters, 2001). In addition to Native Friendship Centres, many cities now have a number of Indigenous-specific cultural and artistic centres, healing centres, health and social service organizations, First Peoples’ centres at universities, employment services, and other special initiatives and committees (Environics Institute, 2010; Montréal Urban  Aboriginal Health Committee (MUAHC), 2012). https://learn.thompsonbooks.com/resource/20/nodes/654/read 30/39 11/30/23, 10:36 AM Thompson Learn. Social work with urban Indigenous populations might look very different depending on how long someone has lived in the city, the degree to which culturally-specific services are important to them, whether they speak an Indigenous language (and whether an interpreter is needed), and to what extent services for Indigenous peoples exist in any given city (Environics Institute, 2010; Fast, 2014; Montgomery, 2003). Some cities have a greater proportion of Indigenous peoples who are first generation, and therefore, socalled “culturally safe” and appropriate services may still be developing. For example, in a report exploring the need for culturally-specific resources for Nisga’a living away from their ancestral lands, Montgomery (2003) traced the development of the Native Friendship Centre movement and commented on some of the potential pitfalls of such a culturally diverse model of service provision for urban Indigenous peoples. He wrote that in 1972, the Canadian government officially recognized the long-term sustainability of Native PAGE #295 Friendship Centres and implemented the Native Migrating Peoples Program. An early evaluation of the Friendship Centres found that they had established a wide base of support among community members and were able to apply their funds creatively (Montgomery, 2003). However, despite the support received for the Centres, Montgomery asserted that due to the “liberal cultural pluralist” model employed by Friendship Centres, other local organizations may feel that they do not need to offer culturally relevant services to urban Indigenous peoples. Furthermore, certain cultural traditions tend to be favoured over others, in all likelihood based on the majority Indigenous culture(s) represented in a specific city. Thus, the relevance of some of the cultural programming or resources may be limited for Indigenous peoples who do not identify with those cultures.   Urban Peoples and Cultural Identities https://learn.thompsonbooks.com/resource/20/nodes/654/read 31/39 11/30/23, 10:36 AM Thompson Learn. The issue of cultural identity is Urban Aboriginal Peoples Study important for all Indigenous peoples, but The Urban Aboriginal Peoples Study is an it may be further complicated when extensive research study that sought to Indigenous individuals live in an urban capture the values, experiences, and environment. Early academic discourses on urban Indigenous peoples beginning in the 1940s and 1950s that coincided with increased migration to cities centered on the notion that urban life was incompatible with Indigenous aspirations of Aboriginal peoples living in Vancouver, Edmonton, Calgary, Regina, Saskatoon, Winnipeg, Thunder Bay, Toronto, Montréal, Halifax, and Ottawa. Speaking directly with a representative group of 2,614 First Nations peoples, Métis, and Inuit living in these major cultures and identities. Migration to Canadian cities, as well as 2,501 non- cities was seen as a decision to abandon Aboriginal Canadians, the Environics Indigenous identities and assimilate into the mainstream culture. In contrast, a 2011 paper argued that emerging research Institute released a study that offers Canadians a new perspective on their Aboriginal neighbours. Guided by an Advisory Circle, Aboriginal individuals has found that urban living is not at odds designed the research themes and the with a retention or emergence of positive methodology, and they executed the main Indigenous identities and communities survey. (Peters, 1996, 2011). Peters (2011) identified four main themes that impact urban Indigenous identities: (1) settler racism, (2) municipal settler colonialism, (3) the onus to search out opportunities to remain culturally connected ,and, (4) the cultural heterogeneity of cities. Settler racism was defined as both blatant and more subtle forms of discrimination, where white privilege and ways of life were naturalized.For example, Indigenous healing practices were not even considered as options in mainstream health care. https://learn.thompsonbooks.com/resource/20/nodes/654/read 32/39 11/30/23, 10:36 AM Thompson Learn. Municipal settler colonialism was seen as a second, related theme in the emerging research on urban Indigenous identities . For example, Newhouse and Peters (2001) argued that research on urban Indigenous peoples often focuses on individuals and neglects the larger urban Indigenous community. Some legislation requires social workers to involve an Indigenous child’s community in all decisions concerning placement of children (Sinha et al., 2011). Social workers may need to think more broadly about who makes up someone’s community in an urban setting, especially if they have lived in the city for several generations, and they should always ask the family to determine who makes up their own community and support system. The third theme that Peters found in the literature on urban Indigenous identities was the challenge of having to consciously decide to seek out opportunities to be involved in cultural activities or to be part of an urban community (Frideres, 2008; Lawrence, 2004). This might speak to the assumption that urban Indigenous persons have frequent access to the land or their home communities, when for many, this is neither a financial or logistical reality, especially if family members have been living in the city for several generations (Howard and Proulx, 2011). The fourth emergent theme in the academic literature on urban Indigenous peoples is the cultural heterogeneity of cities. Tensions between providing culturally specific programs or opportunities and providing spaces where all Indigenous peoples are welcome are sometimes amplified by limited resources (Frideres, 2008; Proulx, 2003). Social workers must keep this in mind when working with Indigenous families.   Redressing past injustices https://learn.thompsonbooks.com/resource/20/nodes/654/read 33/39 11/30/23, 10:36 AM Thompson Learn. Social Work and Indigenous Peoples Reclaiming traditional paths to holistic health Wellness and Healing Decolonializing social work and incorporating traditional practices Indigenous Social Work in Urban Centres Community collaboration for northern well-being Social Work with Remote Populations  https://learn.thompsonbooks.com/resource/20/nodes/654/read  34/39 11/30/23, 10:36 AM Thompson Learn. Social Work Practitioner Adolphus Cameron Accepting responsibility for their own well-being and creating a history book have helped children and families in Adolphus Cameron’s community understand their trauma and move forward with their lives. Chapter 9 Review  https://learn.thompsonbooks.com/resource/20/nodes/654/read  35/39 11/30/23, 10:36 AM Thompson Learn. Review Questions PAGE #305 What bearing does the history of the relationship between Indigenous peoples and the people of Canada have on social work with Indigenous peoples? What were some long-term consequences of the residential school system and the Sixties Scoop for survivors and their families? Describe the goals and guiding principles of the Touchstones of Hope movement. Describe some beneficial initiatives to help close the gap in post-secondary education for Indigenous students. How can social workers become advocates and allies with regard to Indigenous communities? What are four key principles to incorporate into an Indigenous approach to social work practice? Compare and contrast social work with Indigenous peoples in rural communities and in urban settings.  https://learn.thompsonbooks.com/resource/20/nodes/654/read  36/39 11/30/23, 10:36 AM Thompson Learn. Exploring Social Work Visit beststart.org (http://beststart.org/), the Best Start Resource Centre website, and read the 2012 report titled “Why Am I Poor? First Nations Child Poverty in Ontario.” In a two-page summary, describe the main contributing factors to First Nations child poverty in Canada’s largest province as well as the report’s key recommendations for the eradication of child poverty in First Nations communities. The federal government formed the Truth and Reconciliation Commission (TRC) as part of IRSSA. Research the mandate and scope of the TRC and present your results in a three-page paper. On September 13, 2007, the United Nations adopted the Declaration on the Rights of Indigenous Peoples. The Declaration establishes a universal framework of minimum standards, but Canada was one of four nations to reject it at the time. On November 12, 2010, the government of Canada finally formally endorsed the Declaration. However, some observers felt that the government’s official statement fell short of actual endorsement. Beginning with the Assembly of First Nations website ( (afn.ca)), research this issue and write a two-page paper summarizing your research findings.  https://learn.thompsonbooks.com/resource/20/nodes/654/read  37/39 11/30/23, 10:36 AM Thompson Learn. Websites First Nations Child and Family Caring Society of Canada (http://www.fncfcs.com) FNCFCS is a national non-profit organization founded to provide research, policy, professional development, and networking support in caring for First Nations children, youth, and families. It is the only national organization serving Aboriginal children and families. It championed Jordan’s Principle and Shannen’s Dream, two of the most widely supported child policies in Canadian history. Using a reconciliation framework that respectfully engages First Nation and non-Aboriginal peoples, the Caring Society provides high-quality resources to support First Nations communities to empower children, youth, and families. The website features news, events, programs, publications, access to the society’s online journal, photo exhibitions, recommended reading, links to social media, and more. National Centre for Truth and Reconciliation (University of Manitoba) (http://umanitoba.ca/nctr/) The first stage of the journey of the Truth and Reconciliation Commission of Canada (TRC) is now complete. As of December 18, 2015, the TRC offices are now closed. But the journey of Truth and Reconciliation is far from over. The work of the TRC has now been transferred to the National Centre for Truth and Reconciliation at the University of Manitoba, which provides links to the TRC reports and findings and to resources of interest to students and educators. www.aptn.ca (http://aptn.ca/) https://learn.thompsonbooks.com/resource/20/nodes/654/read   38/39 11/30/23, 10:36 AM Thompson Learn. Founded in 1992 and headquartered in Winnipeg, Aboriginal Peoples Television Network is a Canadian broadcaster and cable television network. APTN airs and produces programs made by, for, and about Aboriginal peoples in Canada or the United States. CBC Aboriginal (http://www.cbc.ca/news/aboriginal) Watch, listen, comment, and upload your own local news to this multiplatform website (offering access to TV, radio, live blogs, and more) that focuses on events, politics, and programming related to Aboriginal affairs and communities across Canada.  (/resource/20/nodes/653/read)  (/resource/20/nodes/655/read)  About Us (http://thompsonbooks.com/about-tep/) Contact (http://thompsonbooks.com/contact-us/) Privacy Policy (http://thompsonbooks.com/privacy/) Terms & Conditions (https://learn.thompsonbooks.com/terms-and-conditions/) © Copyright 2023 Thompson Educational Publishing, Inc. All Rights Reserved. https://learn.thompsonbooks.com/resource/20/nodes/654/read 39/39