Food Additives PDF

Food additives Fundamentals of Food Preparation What are food additives? - Food additives are substances G -- added to products to perform specific technological functions Cade for specific function) -...

Food additives Fundamentals of Food Preparation What are food additives? - Food additives are substances G -- added to products to perform specific technological functions Cade for specific function) - - ⑳ These functions include preserving, i.e. increasing - shelf-life or inhibiting ⑫ the growth ⑤ of pathogens, or adding colouring and flavouring to food for interest - T - and variety. - the to make Food more attractive  Classification of additives Intentional and non-intentional - - Non-intentional – have no intended function - become part of food in the phase of minine Prito addedto production or handling e.g., pesticide, > - - i antibiotics, packaging materials & lubricants l addedatransfer N The oils used for S tocan a macheng me 3  Types of additives Additives may be: ① natural – found naturally, such as extracts from beetroot juice - - (E162), used as a = colouring agent; - anid , 2 ② manmade versions – synthetic identical copies of substances found naturally, such as benzoic acid - - (E210), used as a preservative; 7~ - ③ artificial – produced synthetically and not found - mu naturally, such as nisin (E234), used as a preservative in - - some dairy products and in semolina and tapioca puddings.  ① there is no > variety of natural Why not keep to natural additives? additives to preform ↳ - all the functions ② man med & + more · fficient at preserving Some artificial colours have almost disappeared from - - - foods as companies realised that many consumers prefer food products to contain natural colours. - O At present, there is not the - variety of natural additives required to perform all the functions of additives necessary. - Manmade additives may prove more efficient at - - preserving, and some natural colours fade in some - products. g &  prevent the growth of morgasm Ev Preservatives L increase the shelf fe - Preservatives aim to: ① prevent the=growth of micro-organisms which could cause food -spoilage and lead to food poisoning; w ② extend the shelf-life of products, so that they can be - - distributed and sold to the consumer with a longer shelf-life. - # For example, beef and other ‘cured’ meats are often - treated with = nitrite and nitrate (E249 to E252) during the -wr mu curing process. - ↓ it effecthumen Health  Antioxidants Antioxidants aim to: happen present in of Oz ① prevent food containing fat or oil from going rancid M w - M due to oxidation, i.e. developing an unpleasant odour - - or flavour; > - ② prevent the browning of cut fruit, vegetables and - - fruit juices (and so increase shelf life and appearance). - For example, vitamin C, also known as ascorbic acid, - - - or E300, is one of the most widely used antioxidants. - nu  Colours Colours aim to: Q restore colour lost during processing or - - storage, e.g. marrowfat peas; - = · ensure that each batch produced is identical in appearance or does not appear ‘off’; its sin reinforces colour already in foods, e.g. increase enhance the yellowness of a custard; - ④ give colour to foods which otherwise would be colourless (e.g. soft drinks) and so make them - more - attractive.  Colours Certain combinations of the following artificial food colours: sunset yellow (E110), quinoline yellow (E104), - carmoisine (E122), allura red (E129), tartrazine (E102) and ponceau 4R (E124) have been linked to a - negative effect on - children’s behaviour. ~ These colours are used in soft drinks, sweets and ice cream.  181j4) Flavour enhancers S! (not the same. ↑ V - - -), 09 added to tic type of food · & T Flavour enhancers bring out the flavour in foods without - - imparting a flavour of their own, e.g. & monosodium glutamate (E621) is added to processed - foods. For example, some soups, sauces and - sausages. give particular ta e Flavourings, on the other hand, are added to a wide range of foods, usually in small amounts to give a - - - particular O taste. These do not have E numbers because - - they are controlled by different food laws. Ingredients lists will say if flavourings have been used, but individual flavourings might not be named. - not mentioned in label Food Sweeteners than sucrose Sweeteners include: swetnessBoo concentrated & intense sweeteners, e.g. saccharin, have a sweetness - see many times higher than that of sugar, and therefore - - ↑ are used in small amounts, e.g. in diet foods, soft drinks, - - - sweetening tablets; sweetness e similar bulk sweeteners, e.g. sorbitol, have a similar - to sucrose sweetness to sugar and are used at similar levels. - Acids, bases and buffers Acids, bases and buffers control the acidity or alkalinity - of food, for safety and stability of flavour. - Anti-caking agents -Six o dis Anti-caking agents ensure free movement or flow of particles, e.g. in dried milk or table salt. - - - Anti – foaming agents ⑳m Anti-foaming agents prevent or disperse frothing, e.g. in - - the production of fruit juices. - Glazing agents Glazing agents provide a =protective coating or =sheen on the surface of foods, e.g. confectionary - z (for appearance and shelf-life). sweet Corr  Emulsifiers, stabilisers, gelling agents, and thickeners Emulsifiers help mix ingredients together that would One mmm normally separate, e.g. Lecithin (E322). ~ ⑦ Stabilisers m prevent ingredients from separating again, - e.g. locust me bean gum (E410). - Emulsifiers and stabilisers give food a consistent texture, e.g. they can be found in low-fat spreads. ⑮ Gelling agents are used to change the consistency of a - - · food, e.g. pectin (E440), which is used to makeC -m - jam. a Thickeners help give food body, e.g. can be found in ~ - most sauces. Classification of additives - CPAP FS > - 80 %. 5 Colourings: - ⑤ E100-199 Preservatives: - E200-299 - - Antioxidants: - E300-399 - Physical conditioning agents: - E400-E499 Flavourings: - No E no. - Flavour Enhancers: - E 600-699 = - Sweeteners: - E900-999 - Nutritive additives: - No E no. Colourings: E100-E199 in general = Class Examples Use Origin Functions Natural Chlorophyll - Tinned veg. - = > Plants Improve e (E140) Soft drinks - > Carrots appearance of Carotene ~> Red jelly ->Cactus insects food Cochineal - Brown sauce, Heated carbs.- To replace - (E120) colour lost in - gravy Caramelisation Caramel processing. To satisfy Synthetic Tartrazine - All made from - consumer Artificial Yellow (E120) T Soft drinks coal tar expectations. Red (E128) Sausages - To give Green (E142) > Sweets colour to food Amaranth - Blackcurrant that would be purply-red - - products colourless (E123) grape Fruit Colourings are not permitted in fresh meat, fish, poultry, fruit, - vegetables or baby foods. - > - - - Preservatives E200-E299 Classes Examples Use Origins Functions Natural Sugar - > Jam, sweets Beet/cane Prevents Salt > - Bacon, pickles Rock, sea spoilage by preventing Vinegar Pickles, chutney Fermentation microbial Alcohol Fruit, cake Fermentation growth. Smoke Fish, meat, cheese Burning wood Extend shelf ① life. Artifical Sulphur Sausages, fruit Prevents -tem dioxide juice, dried fruit & - - food (E220) veg. poisoning. O Made in labs Reduces Sorbic Soft fruit, fruit waste. acid yoghurt, processed - - Greater (E200) cheese. variety foods available Diphenyl Citrus fruit, bananas Not permitted in baby foods - &  Antioxidants E300-399 Classes Examples Use Origins Functions Natural Ascorbic acid Fruit drinks Fruit & veg. Prevents oxidation - Tocopherol -itamine where food is (E306) Vegetable oils Nuts & seeds spoiled by Artificial BHA (E320) = Stock cubes, >s- - Made in lab reacting with cheese spread oxygen BHT (E321) = Chewing gum BHA and BHT not permitted in baby food  Physical Conditioning agents E400-499 - Classes Examples Use Origin Function Emulsifiers Lecithin Mayonnaise Eggs, soya To make beans permanent - E322 - Hollandaise Seaweed emulsions - Alginates Ice cream E401-404 - Stabilisers Carageen Ice cream Seaweed To stabilise Guar gum Confectionary Guar plant emulsions by E412 thickening them Gelling Pectin E440 Jams / jellies fruit cell To set mixtures walls Anti-caking Magnesium Salt- as anti- Lab To prevent carbonate caking agent, lumping Cake mixes Humectants Sweetners Confectionary Lichen They absorb sorbital and and sweets water vapour mannitol Cakes/ buns from air and keep foods moist Flavourings (No E numbers) Classes Examples Use Origin Functions Natural Sugar Jam, tinned Cane, beet, beans, cereals. fruit = > - To add Salt Cheese, butter, Sodium flavour to convenience fds chloride food Spices Meat products, Rock or sea Herbs sauces, stock Root, seeds To replace cubes and leaves of flavour lost plants in processing. Artificial Ethyl acetate - Rum flavour Chemical rxn. Amyl acetate Pear flavour heating acetic acid and ethyl - Benzaldehyde Cherry flavour alcohol To enhance - Maltol Fresh baked smell Tree Bark food flavour Flavour Monosodium Chinese food, Glutamic acid Enhancers Glutamate soup, sauces, an amino acid stock cubes - E600-699 E621  Sweeteners E900-E999 Class Examples Use Origin Functions Natural Fructose Tinned peas Fruit Sucrose Biscuits, Sugar beet & To sweeten sweets, sugar cane food tinned fruit Glucose Tinned fruit, Fruit & honey syrup jelly Artificial Aspartame Diet drinks Dipeptide E951 - Sweetener (aspartic acid+ Used in low “Nutrasweet phenyalanine) calorie / , Canderel” diabetic Saccharine Coal tar food & Diet drinks drinks E954 Sweetener ‘Hermesetes’ Bulk Sorbitol Diabetic food, sugar free Lichens Sorbitol used in diabetic Sweeteners food food as it Mannitol Sugar free Lichens does not need E965 gum, ice cream insulin Nutritive additives Nutritive additives are nutrients added to food during manufacture The foods are then called -fortified foods. Functions Replace nutrients lost in processing e.g. flour, skimmed milk - - = To increase nutritional value e.g. - - breakfast cereal To increase sales e.g. fruit juice - To imitate another food e.g. butter/margarine, meat / textured vegetable protein Advantages of additives Increase shelf life – preservatives Reduce risk of food poisoning – preservatives Prevent waste – preservatives Make food more appetising – colouring Improve taste – flavouring Improve texture – physical conditioning agents Increase nutritive value Provide wider variety of foods Ensure consistency of quality  Disadvantages of additives Allergies: migraine, hyperactivity, rashes e.g. tartrazine Little known about cumulative or combined effect of additives. Bulking agents can deceive consumers. Some additives destroy nutrients e.g. sulphur dioxide destroys vitamin B. Sweeteners can leave bitter aftertaste e.g. saccharine. Contaminants Substances that enter food unintentionally or illegally at various stages of production which may cause harm. Pesticides: used in agriculture to prevent damage to crops. They include insecticides, herbicides, fungicides. Run off can contaminate water supply. Antibiotics: used for animals and poultry to cure diseases. Passed on to humans in milk or meat. Metals: from soil, water, containers, cooking equipment e.g. Lead, cadmium. Contaminants Plastic chemicals from packaging. Formaldehyde from treated paper packaging. Foreign bodies; hair, glass, wire etc.. Other Chemicals: growth promoters, carcinogens from smoking and barbecuing, dioxins from burning hydrocarbons. Micro-organisms.  Functional - properties of food Different foods have different working properties when treated in certain ways - or combined with other - foods. Food designers need to - understand the properties of foods when they are designing new dishes, to make sure they match the product profile.  Food Additives Intentional Additives. Chemicals added to the food for specific purpose - - Regulated: Generally recognized as - safe (GRAS). With prior approval. > - before the addition - Incidental additives. Radioactive fallout – pesticides –antibiotics. - - Trace metals (mercury and lead). - > - Bacterial and fungal toxins. - -  Intentional Additives Substances when added to the food become a component and affect food characteristics. I can't Provide useful and acceptable function/attribute. if not - use it Improving keeping quality, increasing shelf life. Loading… - - Enhancing nutritional value. - Improving functional properties. - Facilitating preparation/processing. - Enhancing consumer acceptance.  FOOD ADDITIVES should not be used to: conceal damage or spoilage of food. deceive consumers. if similar effects can be obtained by good manufacturing practices. Types and amounts of legal additives vary from country to country. CFR (Code of Federal Regulations), Title 21 in the USA. Compendium of Food Additives Specifications in European Union. Emirates Authority for Standardization and Metrology (ESMA) in UAE.  GENERAL FUNCTIONS Antimicrobial agents Sweeteners Antioxidants Emulsifiers Aerating and foaming Firming agents agents Stabilizers and thickeners pH control Loading… Buffering salts Flavors Moisture control agents Catalysts Color control Clarifying agents Anticaking agents  Solutions Examples of a solution are: Fruit juices. Sugar and water syrups. Salt and water brine. A solution is formed when: A liquid is dissolved in another liquid, for example fruit squash in water. A solid is dissolved in a liquid like sugar in a cup of tea. Solutions will not separate when left to stand. Protein and its functional properties in food products Most foods contain protein, such as collagen in meat, gluten in wheat flour, and albumin in egg white. Some types of protein help with reactions – these are called enzymes, whilst others form part of the structure of the cells. Dipeptides and polypeptides When two amino acids are joined together in this way, a dipeptide is formed. A polypeptide is created when many amino acids are joined together. A typical protein may contain 500 or more amino acids, joined together by peptide bonds. Dipeptides and polypepetides Each protein has its own specific number and sequence of amino acids. The chains of amino acids making up the structure are also held together by bonds, sometimes containing sulphur. The shape of the molecule is important as it often determines the function of the protein. Gluten formation Two proteins, gliadin and glutenin, found in wheat flour, form gluten when mixed with water. Gluten is strong, elastic and forms a 3D network in dough. In the production of bread, kneading helps untangle the gluten strands and align them. Gluten helps give structure to the bread and keeps in the gases that expand during cooking. The amount and type of protein present depends on the flour type and quality. Strong flour contains a maximum of 17% protein, plain flour 10%. Gluten development A cross section is shown below of under developed dough and weak or soft flour 8% respectively. Products that require short or non-elastic textures, such as biscuits and cakes, use flours with lower protein contents. Loading… Coagulation Coagulation follows denaturation. For example, when egg white is cooked it changes in colour and becomes firmer or sets. The heat causes egg proteins to unfold from their coiled state and form a solid stable network. This change is irreversible.  Coagulation Another form of coagulation occurs in the production of cheese. Rennin (an enzyme from a calf’s stomach) is added to milk causing the protein casein to clot, producing curds (solid) and whey (liquid). Other applications of coagulation are: yogurt production; thickening of sauces with beaten egg; binding ingredients together, e.g. fish, cakes, reformed meats; providing a coating for products, e.g. scotch eggs. Denaturation Denaturation is the change in structure of protein molecules. The process results in the unfolding of molecules. Factors which contribute to denaturation are heat, salts, pH and mechanical action. Denaturation is a partially reversible change. For example, when an egg white is whisked it incorporates air to form a foam. If the foam is left to stand, it will collapse back to form liquid egg white.  Suspensions A suspension forms when solid particles are added to liquid but do not dissolve. Starch particles such as flour do not dissolve in a liquid, but they form a suspension. If the suspension is not agitated, the solid particles will fall to the bottom. One example is when a saucepan is not stirred when heated, lumps form at the bottom of the pan.  Gels A gel is a solid jelly-like substance. Gels are mostly liquid but behave like a solid due to the gelling agent holding the liquid in place. Gels form when starch is heated in a liquid and cooled. The starch granules swell as the temperature rises. Over 85C the starch granules rupture and soak up the liquid, (gelatinisation). Examples include White sauce Lemon meringue pie filling Jam  Flan glaze Thickening; Smart starches Manufacturers use a large number of starches which have been altered to change their working properties. These are known a modified starches or smart starches. Some modified starches are pre-gelatinised. This allows them to thicken instantly such as cup a soups or pot noodles. Some modified starches allow sauces to be reheated with no syneresis. Some modified starches are not affected by acidity, so can be used to thicken salad dressings.  Emulsions Liquids that will not mix together are immiscible such as oils and water. When shaken together they form an unstable emulsion which separates if left standing. A mixture only remains stable if an emulsifier is used. Lecithin in egg yolk is an emulsifier. Egg yolk is used in the preparation of mayonnaise where it holds oil and vinegar together. It helps the fat in the cake mix with the egg white.  Volumising/aerating-Foams Aerating makes a mixture lighter. Foams are gas mixed into a liquid (when whisked or beaten) giving a light texture like in ice cream. Meringues are a foam made by whisking air (gas) into egg white (liquid). When you bake, then the air expands, and the egg white coagulates to give a solid structure.  Elasticity Wheat contains two proteins glutenin and gliadin. When water is added to wheat flour they form gluten. Gluten is very stretchy or elastic it allows food made from wheat flour such as bread and cakes to rise.  Plasticity Plasticity describes how fats change shape under pressure, such as rubbing in or spreading You can easily rub in Soft margarine Butter Lard Oil cannot be easily rubbed in Plasticity allows fat to coat each flour particle in rubbed in products like short crust pastry or shortbread.  Shortening Fats make cakes and biscuits crumbly and melt in the mouth by forming a coating around the starch and protein molecules in the flour. This stops the liquid from being absorbed by the flour and helps stop gluten forming. Any gluten that does form is in short lengths not the long elastic strands found in bread. These short gluten strands give us the term shortening.  Binding Binding helps to stick ingredients together. Fats, eggs, cereals and flour are used for binding, eg egg is used to bind together a biscuit mixture. Browning / Caramelising Browning / caramelising adds a layer of colour to the mixture. Fats, eggs, cereals, sugar, milk, flour and oil are used for browning, e.g. when heated, egg glaze or sugar turns brown adding to the appearance of the food. Flavouring Flavouring helps to make something taste better, by adding fats, eggs, pulses, fruit, sugar, milk, oil, herbs or spices. Moistening Moistening helps to remove the dryness from foods. Fats, eggs, fruit, sugar, milk or oil are used for moistening. Setting Setting uses eggs to make foods firm. Sweetening Sweetening improves the flavour of certain foods by adding sugar or fruit, e.g. sugar will help to soften the sharp taste of grapefruit. As you can see, most of these working properties can be found in many different foods… Loading… Meat  Meat ◼ The muscle of the animal. ◼ It also covers the internal organs. ◼ Meat is obtained from herbivores of certain species: ▪ beef cattle, sheep, goat and camel. ◼ Meat from other animals are rare: rabbit and deer. Beef converts 16 kg of grain into 1 kg meat  Meat ◼ Meat is the most expensive item on the menu in general. ◼ Some cuts of meat are tough, some are tender. ◼ Tough (hard or firm) Tender (soft). ◼ Preparation method varies from cut to cut. ◼ Tough cuts and tender cuts are prepared with different methods.  Types of Meats Beef ◼ Cattle are classified according to age and gender. ◼ Steers are male cattle. ◼ Heifers, females that have not borne a calf, are also used for meat. ◼ Cows are female cattle that have borne calves, and this meat is less desirable than that from steers or heifers. ◼ Veal 3W-3M – fed milk, restricted movement and tender with pale color. ◼ Calves 3-8 months old. Their meat is referred to as “baby beef.” Lamb from sheep less than 14 M. Mutton from sheep more than 14 M, darker, tougher and has stronger flavor than lamb.  Composition of Meats Meats are composed of: – Water – Muscle – Connective tissue – Adipose (fatty) tissue – Bone ◼ The proportions of these elements vary according to the animal and the part of its anatomy represented by the cut of meat.  Composition of Meats ◼ Connective tissue: ◼ A protein structure that surrounds living cells, giving them structure and adhesiveness within themselves and to adjacent tissues. ◼ Collagen: ◼ A fibrous protein that provides support to muscle and prevents it from over-stretching. ◼ It is the primary protein in connective tissue.  Composition of Meats ◼ Marbling ◼ Fat deposited in the muscle that can be seen as little white streaks or drops. ◼ Well marbled meat has a higher price since it has a tender texture. ◼ However, many consumers avoid high fat intake, and they buy lean meats. ribeye 1  Meat color ◼ Myoglobin is a protein that stores oxygen in muscles. ◼ It gives a red color. ◼ Exposure of meat to oxygen changes the color of myoglobin and the meat. ◼ Myoglobin is purplish red, but once cut and exposed to oxygen, it becomes bright red. ◼ Cooking causes denaturation of proteins. ◼ The denaturing of myoglobin yields the typical color of well-done meat—grayish brown.  Meat color Pink color of sausages and salami comes from nitrite/nitrate addition.  Composition of Meats ◼ Flavor compounds consisting of nonprotein, nitrogen substances ◼ are end-products of protein metabolism. Ex. Creatine. ◼ They flavor soups when beef is boiled in water.  Purchasing Meats carcass ◼ To ensure that consumers are purchasing meat that is safe, all meat slaughtered in UAE is mandatory inspected by food inspectors. ◼ In US, meat may also be assigned yield grades and quality grades to assist consumers in selection. Purchasing Meats ◼ Inspection is mandatory for all meat in US. ◼ Inspections are the responsibility of the USDA (United State Department of Agriculture) ◼ Meat that passes this federal inspection is marked with an inspection stamp.  Purchasing Meats ◼ Grading of meat is voluntary ◼ Factors considered in grading are ▪ Color, ▪ Juiciness, ▪ Flavor, ▪ Texture, ▪ and fat distribution. highest lowest ◼ Quality grades: The USDA standards for beef, veal, lamb, and mutton. ◼ Yield grade: The amount of lean meat on the carcass in proportion to fat, bone, and other inedible parts.  Purchasing Meats Tenderness of Meats ◼ Overall, natural meat tenderness is due to the cut, age, and fat content. ◼ Meats can also be treated to improve its tenderness by adding – enzymes, salts, acids – Preparation temperatures and times also have an influence on tenderness.  Purchasing Meats Natural Tenderizing ◼ The particular cut of the meat. ◼ Age at slaughter – Connective tissue increases with age ◼ Heredity and diet – Grain fed cattle have tender meat ‘Black Angus’ cattle bred to have marbled ◼ Marbling meat ◼ Slaughtering conditions – Stress, cold weather, exercise produce tough meat ◼ Aging – Ripening carcass around ten days under refrigeration …all affect tenderness. ◼ Rigor mortis: From the Latin for “stiffness of death,” the temporary stiff state following death as muscles contract. ◼ Muscle should relax before using as meat.  Purchasing Meats There are two major types of meat cuts: ◼ Wholesale The large cuts of an animal carcass, divided into about seven wholesale (primal) cuts ◼Retail Smaller cuts of meat obtained from wholesale cuts and sold to the consumer. tough soft softest tough toughest toughest toughest Purchasing Meats Five wholesale cuts  Purchasing Meats ◼ Variety meats: The liver, sweetbreads (edible glands), brain, kidneys, heart, tongue, tripe (stomach lining), and oxtail (tail of cattle).  Purchasing Meats ◼ Processed meat products. ◼ sausages, bologna, frankfurters, pastrami, salami… ◼ Meat is preserved by such processing methods; curing, smoking, canning, and drying.  Preparation of Meats Barding Tying thin sheets of fat over lean meat. To keep the meat moist during roasting (removed before serving). barding seared meat ◼ Searing ◼ Exposing a meat cut to very high initial temperatures; to “seal the pores,” ◼ Increase flavor and enhance color by browning. Preparation of Meats Rare steak Rare roast beef Rare burger ✓ ✓   Preparation of Meats F I G U R E 1 4 - 1 8 Touch as a test for doneness.  Carry-over cooking ◼ ◼ The phenomenon in which food continues to cook after it has been removed from the heat source. ◼ The heat is distributed more evenly from the outer to the inner portion of the food. ◼ Tenderizes the meat.  Preparation of Meats ◼ Tender cuts are usually prepared by one of the dry-heating methods: – Roasting (baking in the oven) – Broiling (heating from above) – Grilling (heating on the grill) – Frying (heating in oil)  Broiling and grilling ◼ Broiling and grilling times are based primarily on the meat’s thickness and its distance from the heat ◼ The thicker the meat, the longer it takes to cook. ◼ Thin piece (2cm), can be cooked close to the heat source (6cm). ◼ Thicker piece (7.5cm), should be cooked away from the heat source (12cm) for slower cooking.  Frying ◼ Sautéing, pan-frying, and deep-frying are suitable for ◼ Tender, small pieces of meat (low in fat or have a breaded coating). dish made by frying beef coated with bread crumbs.  Less tender cuts of meat ◼ Come from more heavily exercised muscles or older animals, are usually prepared by moist-heat methods such as: – Braising (simmering meat in small amount of water) – Stewing (simmering meat submerged in water) – Steaming ◼ Microwave ovens are usually not the best option for cooking meats, except for thawing and reheating leftovers.  Storage of Meats ◼ Meat contains high percentages of water and protein, ◼ Ideal for the growth of microorganisms. ◼ Consequently, meat should be stored in the refrigerator or freezer. ◼ Meats are best refrigerated at just above freezing (0°C), between 0° to 2°C.  Storage of Meats Wrapping Meat ◼ Most retail meats are packaged with plastic wrap and can be refrigerated in their original wrap for up to two days. ◼ For storage beyond two days the store wrapping should be removed and replaced by loosely wrapped plastic wrap, wax paper, or aluminum foil.  Storage of Meats Frozen ◼ Meats should be wrapped tightly in aluminum foil, heavy plastic bags, or freezer paper and stored at or below -18°C. ◼ It is better to trim meat of bone and fat and to divide it up into individual servings before wrapping and freezing. ◼ Packages of frozen meat should be labeled and dated. Cereal Grains and Baked Products  Cereal grains are seeds from the grass family Gramineae. Serving as the world’s major food crop. Structure of cereal grains Husk: The rough outer covering of the grain. (protective environment) Bran: The covering just under the Loading… husk that protects the grain’s soft endosperm. Excellent source of fiber, B vitamins and minerals. (removed) Endosperm: The largest portion of the grain, containing starch. (basis) Germ: The smallest portion of the grain, and the embryo for a future plant. (fat/spoilage) Whole grain /shorter shelf-life  Preparation of cereal grains Heating the dried cereals in water. Softens and gelatinizes their starch. Creates an edible texture and improve flavor. Rice is the most commonly prepared grain. All grains can be cooked in a similar manner with just slight variations in the water amount and time of heating. Cooking time decreases with reduction in particle size.  Milling Milling or grinding: Removing bran and germ and endosper bra Loading… crushing the endosperm into a m germ n fine powder (flour). Wheat flour dominates the market.  Milling Breaking the grain to remove bran and germ. Purifying blowing the bran using air. Reducing particle size by rollers. Sifting to separate different particle sizes. Classifying producing different flours from the same grain. Extraction rate.  Types of wheat flour Whole Wheat Flour - made from the entire kernel. White Flour - made from the endosperm only. Bread flour - made from hard winter wheat with high protein content. Durum Flour - made from hard winter durum wheat, used for pasta. All-Purpose Flour - Contains less protein than bread flour. Pastry and Cake Flour - made from soft wheat flour with lower protein content. Gluten Flour - contains high gluten - Bread flour.  Types of wheat flour - Treated flours Aged Flour Stored to oxidize pigments to have white color. Bleached Flour Chemicals are used to degrade carotenoids. Self-Rising Flour Flour with leavening agent. Enriched Flour Addition of B1, B2, folate, Fe and Ca to the flour.  Flour mixtures The simplest is made from flour and water. Other ingredients: Milk, fat, eggs, sugar, salt, flavoring, leavening agents and in some cases, commercial additives. The type and proportions of these ingredients determine: the structure, volume, taste, texture, appearance, and nutrient value of the baked products.  Flours Starch strengthens the baked product through gelatinization and contributes to crumb. Crumb is the texture of interior Coarse crumb baked product. A fine crumb contains small air bubbles. A coarse crumb contains large and irregular holes. Fine crumb  Gluten Wheat flour protein with the elastic characteristics necessary for the structure of most baked products. Loading… Knead: To work the dough into an elastic mass by pushing, stretching, and folding. Celiac disease patients should avoid eating foods containing gluten (wheat, oat, rye, barley) because their immune system react negatively to gluten protein (gluten damages their small intestines). Symptoms are diarrhea, abdominal pain and bloating, weight loss, and fatigue.  Kneading - Gluten development is used extensively in bread-making and briefly for biscuits and pastries. http://www.exploratorium.edu/cooking/bread/glutengood1test.html  Leavening agents Leaveners Biological Physical Chemical Yeast - Bacteria Air and Steam Baking soda & food acid Baking powder  Chemical leavening agents Baking soda (NaHCO3 ) – fast acting. Baking powder consists of baking soda and acid. (Na2SO4Al2(SO4)3) – needs heating – slow acting.  Biological leavening agents Yeast Saccharomyces cerevisiae (bread) Baker’s yeasts - fresh or Instant yeast (dry powder). With O2 produce CO2 - absence produce alcohol. Bacteria Harmless bacteria (sourdough) Contributes a desirable, slightly sour flavor to certain baked products. Activity depends on temperature. Functions of sugar Sweetening. Increases the volume incorporates air into the fat. Contributes to volume provides food for the yeast. Raises the temperature of gelatinization and coagulation. Increases moistness and tenderness. Helps delay staling (aging of bakery product). Helps to brown the outer crust of baked products through caramelization and the Maillard reaction. Excess sugar decreases the volume and results in gummy texture.  Functions of salt Flavoring. Makes dough more elastic. Producing a firmer dough by adjusting the solubility and swelling capacity of the gluten. Improving the: Volume Texture Evenness of cell structure Shelf-life Too much salt inhibits yeast activity decreasing the volume of the loaf.  Functions of water Hydrate the flour and gelatinize the starch. allows gluten formation, acts as a solvent for the dry ingredients, activates the yeast, provides steam for leavening, allows baking powder or soda to react and produce carbon dioxide gas. Milk adds flavor and nutrients and contains certain compounds that help produce a velvety texture, a creamy white crumb, and a browner crust. The lactose in milk participates in the Maillard reaction.  Functions of fat Acts as a tenderizer. Adds: Volume Structure Flakiness Flavor Color Resistance to staling It also plays a role in heat transfer. amylopecti n amylos e  Function of emulsifiers Increase volume, produce a more even, finer pore, and improve the shelf life of baked goods.  Functions of eggs Eggs are added to some flour mixtures: To increase cohesiveness Contributes to leavening Color Flavor Nutrient content  Flour mixtures Classified according to water content and consistency. Dough: Dry mixture can be handled and kneaded. Batter: Contains more water than a dough and its consistency ranges from pourable to sticky.  Flour Mixtures Doughs Batters Stiff Soft Drop Pour Biscuits Cream puffs Pancakes Pasta Rolls Muffins Popovers Pastry Scones Quick bread Shortened cake Pie dough Yeast dough Coffee cakes Waffles Some cookies Some cookies Some cookies Some cookies  Storage of flour and flour mixtures Flour should be stored in pest-proof containers and kept in a cool, dry place (year). Whole-grain flours should be refrigerated (about three months). Kneaded flour mixtures can be frozen after defrosting is ready to be shaped and baked. Baked Products  Quick Breads Breads which are baked immediately after mixing the ingredients. Loading… Categorized according to flour mixture used. FROM POUR BATTER WAFFLES PANCAKES  FROM DROP BATTER MUFFINS QUICK TEA BREADS COFFEE CAKES DUMPLINGS BISCUITS TORTILLAS FROM DOUGH MATZO CHAPATIS  Yeast Bread Leavened with yeast 1.Mixing the ingredients 2.Kneading 3.Rising 4.Punching down 5.Shaping 6.Proofing 7.Decorating and scoring allows to rise  evenly without tearing crust WHOLE-WHEAT BREAD SOURDOUGH BREAD LOAF BREADS MALT BREAD  ROLLS BAGELS PITA BREAD ENGLISH MUFFINS PIZZA CRUST RAISED DOUGHNUT  Pasta Semolina is a coarse-ground flour from the endosperm of durum wheat, an amber-colored hard wheat. Has lower starch content and a higher protein content than all-purpose flours and easily digested. The dough fed into an extruder and pushed through metal dies. Type, size and shape of pasta is determined by the holes in the die. Breakfast Cereals Cakes are classified according to its fat content Cakes Shortened Unshortened Chiffon Without Fat Fat Oil