Organizational Behavior: Understanding and Managing Life at Work PDF

Organizational Behaviour: Understanding and Managing Life at Work Twelfth Edition Chapter 8 Social Influence, Socialization, and Organizational Culture Copyright © 2023 Pearson C...

Organizational Behaviour: Understanding and Managing Life at Work Twelfth Edition Chapter 8 Social Influence, Socialization, and Organizational Culture Copyright © 2023 Pearson Canada Inc. 8-1 Social Influence in Organizations As a result of social influence, people often feel or act differently from how they would as independent operators. This is because in many social settings, and especially in groups, people are highly dependent on others. This dependence sets the stage for influence to occur. Two kinds of dependence are information dependence and effect dependence. Copyright © 2023 Pearson Canada Inc. 8-2 Information Dependence Reliance on others for information about how to think, feel, and act. Information dependence gives others the opportunity to influence our thoughts, feelings, and actions via the signals they send to us. This process is explained by social information processing theory. Copyright © 2023 Pearson Canada Inc. 8-3 Social Information Processing Theory Organizational members use information from others to interpret events and develop expectations about appropriate and acceptable attitudes and behaviours. The effects of social information can be very strong, often exerting as much or more influence over others as objective reality. Individual behaviour is influenced and shaped by others. Copyright © 2023 Pearson Canada Inc. 8-4 Effect Dependence (1 of 2) Reliance on others due to their capacity to provide rewards and punishment. The group frequently has a vested interest in how individual members think and act. Group members desire the approval of the group. These circumstances promote effect dependence. Copyright © 2023 Pearson Canada Inc. 8-5 Effect Dependence (2 of 2) Managers have many rewards and punishments available (e.g., promotions, raises, assignment of favourable tasks). Effects available to co-workers include praise, friendship, and a helping hand on the job. Lack of cooperation might result in nagging, harassment, name calling, or social isolation. Copyright © 2023 Pearson Canada Inc. 8-6 The Social Influence Process and Conformity One of the most obvious consequences of information and effect dependence is the tendency for group members to conform to the social norms that have been established by the group. There are three different motives for social conformity: – Compliance – Identification – Internalization Copyright © 2023 Pearson Canada Inc. 8-7 Compliance Conformity to a social norm prompted by the desire to acquire rewards or avoid punishment. Compliance is the simplest, most direct motive for conformity to group norms. It primarily involves effect dependence. Copyright © 2023 Pearson Canada Inc. 8-8 Identification Conformity to a social norm prompted by perceptions that those who promote the norm are attractive or similar to oneself. Information dependence is especially important. If someone is basically similar to you, then you will be motivated to rely on that person for information about how to think and act. Copyright © 2023 Pearson Canada Inc. 8-9 Internalization Conformity to a social norm prompted by true acceptance of the beliefs, values, and attitudes that underlie the norm. Conformity occurs because it is seen as right, not because it achieves rewards, avoids punishment, or pleases others. Conformity is due to internal, rather than external forces. Copyright © 2023 Pearson Canada Inc. 8 - 10 Organizational Socialization Socialization is the process by which people learn the attitudes, knowledge, and behaviours that are necessary to function in a group or organization. It is a learning process in which new members must acquire information and knowledge, change their attitudes, and perform new behaviours. The acquisition of information and knowledge is important for newcomers to reduce their high levels of uncertainty about their new job and organization. Copyright © 2023 Pearson Canada Inc. 8 - 11 Uncertainty Reduction Theory Newcomers are motivated to reduce their uncertainty so that the work environment becomes more predictable and understandable. The socialization process—through the provision of information, resources, and interactions with organizational members—helps to reduce newcomers’ uncertainty and facilitate their adjustment and socialization. Copyright © 2023 Pearson Canada Inc. 8 - 12 Organizational Socialization Learning during socialization involves four main content areas or domains of learning: – Task – Role – Work group – Organization One of the goals of socialization is to provide new hires with information and knowledge about their role to avoid problems of role conflict and role ambiguity. Copyright © 2023 Pearson Canada Inc. 8 - 13 Organizational Socialization An important objective of organizational socialization is for newcomers to achieve a good fit. There are three kinds of fit that are important for socialization: – Person-job fit (P J fit) – Person-organization fit (P O fit) – Person-group fit (P G fit) Copyright © 2023 Pearson Canada Inc. 8 - 14 Organizational Socialization Person-job (P J) fit refers to the match between an employee’s knowledge, skills, and abilities and the requirements of a job. Person-organization (P O) fit refers to the match between an employee’s personal values and the values of an organization. Person-group (P G) fit refers to the match between an employee’s personal values and the values of their work group. Copyright © 2023 Pearson Canada Inc. 8 - 15 Organizational Socialization Organizational identification refers to the extent to which individuals define themselves in terms of the organization and what it is perceived to represent. It reflects an individual’s learning and acceptance of an organization’s culture. Copyright © 2023 Pearson Canada Inc. 8 - 16 Stages of Socialization Socialization is an ongoing process that involves three stages. One of the stages occurs before entry, another immediately after entry, and the last occurs after one has been a member for some period of time. The first two stages represent hurdles for achieving passage into the third stage. Copyright © 2023 Pearson Canada Inc. 8 - 17 Anticipatory Socialization Socialization that takes place before a person becomes a member of a particular organization. Includes formal and informal experiences. Organizations vary in the extent to which they encourage anticipatory socialization. Not all anticipatory socialization is accurate and useful for the new member. Copyright © 2023 Pearson Canada Inc. 8 - 18 Encounter (1 of 2) The new recruit encounters the day-to-day reality of organizational life. Includes formal events such as orientation programs. Informal aspects include getting to know and understand the style and personality of one’s boss and co-workers. Copyright © 2023 Pearson Canada Inc. 8 - 19 Role Management The new member begins to actively manage their role in the organization. Might modify one’s role to better serve the organization. Must balance the organizational role with non-work roles and family demands. Begins to internalize the norms and values that are prominent in the organization. Copyright © 2023 Pearson Canada Inc. 8 - 20 Unrealistic Expectations and the Psychological Contract People join organizations with expectations about what membership will be like and what they expect to receive in return for their efforts. Expectations are often unrealistic and agreements between new members and organizations are often breached. Copyright © 2023 Pearson Canada Inc. 8 - 21 Psychological Contract Beliefs held by employees regarding the reciprocal obligations and promises between them and their organization. An employee might expect to receive bonuses and promotions in return for hard work and loyalty. Copyright © 2023 Pearson Canada Inc. 8 - 22 Psychological Contract Breach Employee perceptions that the organization has failed to fulfill one or more of its promises or obligations in the psychological contract. Psychological contract breach is a common occurrence and is related to affective reactions, work attitudes, and work behaviours. There are three different motives for social conformity: – Compliance – Identification – Internalization Copyright © 2023 Pearson Canada Inc. 8 - 23 Methods of Socialization Organizations differ in terms of who does the socializing, how it is done, and how much is done. Most organizations make use of the following methods of socialization: – Realistic job previews – Employee orientation programs – Socialization tactics – Mentoring Copyright © 2023 Pearson Canada Inc. 8 - 24 Employee Orientation Programs Programs designed to introduce new employees to their job, the people they will be working with, and the organization. Health and safety issues, terms and conditions of employment, and information about the organization, such as its history and traditions. They also convey and form the psychological contract and teach newcomers how to cope with stressful work situations. Copyright © 2023 Pearson Canada Inc. 8 - 25 Realistic Orientation Program for Entry Stress (ROPE S) An orientation program that is designed to help newcomers cope with stress. Newcomers learn how to use cognitive and behavioural coping techniques to manage workplace stressors. Copyright © 2023 Pearson Canada Inc. 8 - 26 Socialization Tactics The manner in which organizations structure the early work experiences of newcomers and individuals who are in transition from one role to another. There are six socialization tactics. They can be grouped into two separate patterns of socialization that are called institutionalized socialization and individualized socialization. Copyright © 2023 Pearson Canada Inc. 8 - 27 Institutionalized Socialization Institutionalized socialization consists of the collective, formal, sequential, fixed, serial, and investiture tactics. A formalized and structured program of socialization that reduces uncertainty and encourages new hires to accept organizational norms and maintain the status quo. Copyright © 2023 Pearson Canada Inc. 8 - 28 Individualized Socialization Individualized socialization consists of the individual, informal, random, variable, disjunctive, and divestiture tactics. A relative absence of structure that creates ambiguity and encourages new hires to question the status quo and develop their own approach to their role. Copyright © 2023 Pearson Canada Inc. 8 - 29 Socialization Tactics The tactics have also been distinguished in terms of the context in which information is presented to new hires; the content provided to new hires; and the social aspects of socialization. Copyright © 2023 Pearson Canada Inc. 8 - 30 Collective Versus Individual Tactics When using the collective tactic, a number of new members are socialized as a group, going through the same experiences and facing the same challenges. The individual tactic consists of socialization experiences that are tailor-made for each new member. Copyright © 2023 Pearson Canada Inc. 8 - 31 Formal Versus Informal Tactics The formal tactic involves segregating newcomers from regular organizational members and providing them with formal learning experiences. Informal tactics do not distinguish a newcomer from more experienced members and rely more on informal and on- the-job learning. Copyright © 2023 Pearson Canada Inc. 8 - 32 Sequential Versus Random Tactics With a sequential tactic, there is a fixed sequence of steps or stages leading to the assumption of the role. With the random tactic, there is an ambiguous or changing sequence of events. Copyright © 2023 Pearson Canada Inc. 8 - 33 Fixed Versus Variable Tactics With a fixed tactic, there is a timetable for the newcomer’s assumption of the role. If the tactic is variable, there is no time frame to indicate when the socialization process ends and the newcomer assumes their new role. Copyright © 2023 Pearson Canada Inc. 8 - 34 Serial Versus Disjunctive Tactics The serial tactic refers to a process in which newcomers are socialized by experienced members of the organization. The disjunctive tactic refers to a socialization process where role models and experienced organization members do not groom new members or “show them the ropes.” Copyright © 2023 Pearson Canada Inc. 8 - 35 Investiture Versus Divestiture Tactics The divestiture tactic involves experiences that are designed to humble new hires and strip away some of their initial self-confidence. The investiture tactic affirms the incoming identity and attributes of new hires rather than denying and stripping them away. Copyright © 2023 Pearson Canada Inc. 8 - 36 Mentoring A mentor is an experienced or more senior person in the organization who provides a junior person guidance and special attention, such as giving advice and creating opportunities to assist them during the early stages of their career. Mentoring is a type of developmental relationship that produces benefits for a protégé’s work and/or career. Copyright © 2023 Pearson Canada Inc. 8 - 37 Career Functions of Mentoring The career functions of mentoring provide career- enhancing benefits and include: – Sponsorship – Exposure and visibility – Coaching and feedback – Developmental assignments Copyright © 2023 Pearson Canada Inc. 8 - 38 Psychosocial Functions of Mentoring The psychosocial functions help develop the newcomer’s self-confidence, sense of identity, and ability to cope with emotional traumas that can damage a person’s effectiveness. They include: – Role modelling – Providing acceptance and confirmation – Counselling Copyright © 2023 Pearson Canada Inc. 8 - 39 Formal Mentoring Programs Mentoring relationships have often been informal without the direct involvement of the organization. Formal mentoring programs are organizationally sponsored programs in which seasoned employees are recruited as mentors and matched with protégés. They have become increasingly popular and are now provided by many organizations. Copyright © 2023 Pearson Canada Inc. 8 - 40 Developmental Networks Groups of people who take an active interest in and actions toward advancing a protégé’s career by providing developmental assistance. A protégé can have multiple developers from inside and outside of the organization and include people from different hierarchical levels of the organization. A newcomer is more likely to obtain different types of support and a broader range of career outcomes. Copyright © 2023 Pearson Canada Inc. 8 - 41 Newcomer Proactive Socialization Behaviours (1 of 2) The process through which newcomers play an active role in their own socialization through the use of proactive socialization behaviours. Two of the most important proactive behaviours: – Feedback seeking: Requesting feedback about one’s work and job performance. – Information seeking: Seeking information about one’s work tasks, roles, work group, and organization. Copyright © 2023 Pearson Canada Inc. 8 - 42 Newcomer Proactive Socialization Behaviours (2 of 2) Newcomers can acquire information by requesting it, by asking questions, and by observing the behaviour of others. Newcomers rely primarily on observation, followed by interpersonal sources (e.g., supervisors and co-workers). They seek out task-related information the most followed by role, group, and organization information. Copyright © 2023 Pearson Canada Inc. 8 - 43 Newcomer Proactive Socialization Behaviours: Research Evidence Newcomers who engage in proactive behaviours more frequently are more likely to obtain the corresponding proactive outcomes (e.g., more feedback-seeking results in obtaining more feedback). Proactive behaviours and outcomes are positively related to proximal (e.g., fit perceptions) and distal (e.g., job satisfaction) socialization outcomes. Environmental as well individual factors influence newcomers’ proactive behaviours. Copyright © 2023 Pearson Canada Inc. 8 - 44 Organizational Culture The course of socialization both depends on and shapes the culture of the organization. An organization’s culture can have a strong effect on the attitudes and behaviour of employees. Culture is so important that many employees place more emphasis on a strong organizational culture than on their compensation. What exactly is an organizational culture? Copyright © 2023 Pearson Canada Inc. 8 - 45 What Is Organizational Culture? (1 of 2) Informally, culture can be thought of as an organization’s style, atmosphere, or personality. Culture provides uniqueness and social identity to organizations. Organizational culture consists of the shared beliefs, values, and assumptions that exist in an organization. Copyright © 2023 Pearson Canada Inc. 8 - 46 What Is Organizational Culture? (2 of 2) These shared beliefs, values, and assumptions determine the norms that develop and the patterns of behaviour that emerge from these norms. CULTURE NORMS BEHAVIOUR Several other characteristics of culture are important. Copyright © 2023 Pearson Canada Inc. 8 - 47 Subcultures Can an organization have several cultures? An organization can have several cultures or what are known as subcultures. Subcultures are smaller cultures that develop within a larger organizational culture that are based on differences in training, occupation, or departmental goals. Copyright © 2023 Pearson Canada Inc. 8 - 48 The “Strong Culture” Concept A strong culture is an organizational culture with intense and pervasive beliefs, values, and assumptions. A strong culture provides great consensus concerning “what the organization is about” or what it stands for. In weak cultures, beliefs, values, and assumptions are less strongly ingrained or less widely shared across the organization. Weak cultures are fragmented and have less impact on organizational members. Copyright © 2023 Pearson Canada Inc. 8 - 49 Organizations with Strong Cultures Some organizations that are generally agreed to have strong cultures: – Hilti (Canada) Corp.: Can-do attitude (“Gung-Ho!”). – Google Canada: Innovation and entrepreneurship. – Shopify: Collaboration and innovation. Google’s Culture: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=n_Cn8eFo7u8 Copyright © 2023 Pearson Canada Inc. 8 - 50 Assets of Strong Cultures Organizations with strong cultures have several potential advantages: – Coordination – Conflict resolution – Financial success Copyright © 2023 Pearson Canada Inc. 8 - 51 Coordination The overarching values and assumptions of strong cultures can facilitate communication and coordination. Different parts of the organization can learn from each other and can coordinate their efforts. Copyright © 2023 Pearson Canada Inc. 8 - 52 Conflict Resolution Sharing core values is a powerful mechanism that helps to resolve conflicts. The core value will often suggest an appropriate dispute resolution mechanism. Copyright © 2023 Pearson Canada Inc. 8 - 53 Financial Success Strong cultures contribute to financial success and organizational effectiveness when the culture supports the mission, strategy, and goals of the organization. WestJet Airlines: One of the most profitable airlines in North America and consistently ranked as having one of the most admired corporate cultures in Canada. Copyright © 2023 Pearson Canada Inc. 8 - 54 Liabilities of Strong Cultures Strong cultures can be a liability under some circumstances: – Resistance to change – Culture clash – Pathology Copyright © 2023 Pearson Canada Inc. 8 - 55 Resistance to Change A strong culture can prove very resistant to change and can damage a firm’s ability to innovate. Copyright © 2023 Pearson Canada Inc. 8 - 56 Culture Clash Strong cultures can mix badly when a merger or acquisition pushes two of them together under the same corporate banner. Copyright © 2023 Pearson Canada Inc. 8 - 57 Pathology Some strong cultures can threaten organizational effectiveness simply because the cultures are, in some sense, pathological. Cultures based on beliefs, values, and assumptions that support infighting, secrecy, and paranoia. Copyright © 2023 Pearson Canada Inc. 8 - 58 The Founder’s Role Many cultures, especially strong cultures, reflect the values of an organization’s founder. Top management strongly shapes an organization’s culture. The culture usually emulates what top management “pays attention to.” Copyright © 2023 Pearson Canada Inc. 8 - 59 Socialization Steps in Strong Cultures (1 of 2) Step 1: Selecting Employees Step 2: Debasement and Hazing Step 3: Training “in the Trenches” Step 4: Reward and Promotion Step 5: Exposure to Core Culture Step 6: Organizational Folklore Step 7: Role Models Copyright © 2023 Pearson Canada Inc. 8 - 60 Socialization Steps in Strong Cultures (2 of 2) It is the consistency among these steps and their mutually reinforcing properties that make for a strong culture. Walt Disney Company is a good example of an organization that uses many of these steps. Copyright © 2023 Pearson Canada Inc. 8 - 61