Chapter 4: How a Society is Organized PDF

# Chapter 4: How a Society is Organized Society is an entity that allows individuality yet provides space for other individuals and groups to pursue mutual goals and aspirations. This chapter focuses on society as a diverse and coherent set of groups and explains how it is organized, highlighting t...

# Chapter 4: How a Society is Organized Society is an entity that allows individuality yet provides space for other individuals and groups to pursue mutual goals and aspirations. This chapter focuses on society as a diverse and coherent set of groups and explains how it is organized, highlighting the particular groups composing it. As we analyze the different aspects of social organization, you will be able to identify your role in the various social groups and networks within society. Also, you will appreciate the fact that despite being unique from other individuals, there are multiple things—ideas, opinions, beliefs, principles, and values—that you share with others. At the end of the chapter, the students will be able to: 1. understand and discuss the composition of society based on the various groups that compose it; 2. identify and define the different types of groups in society; 3. explain the role that social groups play in the formation of identities, values, attitudes, and beliefs; and 4. describe the organized nature of social life and the rules governing behavior in society. ## Discussion: Groups within Society - You share certain similarities with your classmates, just like individual members of society have commonalities with other members. These similarities could be the initial basis for individuals to be drawn together and interact more closely. These similarities could also be the basis for the establishment of deeper and more meaningful relationships. - Beyond the individual, groups are the smaller units that compose society. Societies can be as big as the members of a particular religious organization, such as the Filipino Catholic Church or Muslim community, or as small as a household. Regardless of size, however, membership in groups constitutes a fundamental aspect of our social existence and being. Groups have been responsible for the development and advancement of cultures, economies, politics, and other aspects of human civilization. - The ancient philosopher Plato believed that man is a social animal. This means human beings are naturally equipped with tools such as language and reason that enable them to engage others in meaningful interaction. This desire and ability to interact is seen in various ways. People spend a great deal of their time with various groups. Young people meet their "barkada" in restaurants to catch up with one another's lives; they play sports or engage in different hobbies with their classmates and neighbors; they attend schools, churches, and all sorts of community activities within the neighborhood; and they use social media to communicate with their peers. It is quite impossible to imagine human existence without social groups. - A social group is a collection of individuals who have relations with one another that make them interdependent to some significant degree. Interdependence is a necessary condition that exists within social groups because it is what enables its members to pursue shared goals or promote common values and principles. This notion is recognized by different social and behavioral scientists. Sociologists, anthropologists, educators, psychologists, criminologists, economists, and social workers have devoted a lot of attention studying the dynamics within and between social groups. These experts define and analyze social groups based on their particular perspective. Some put emphasis on groups as units of interaction while some focus on the structural relations within groups. - Interdependence is also what differentiates a social group from an aggregate, or a mere collection of people within a particular place and time. In the context of our social groups, our thoughts, actions, and behavior are defined by our interaction with people to whom we share certain degrees of interdependence. Aggregates, on the other hand, do not necessarily influence our social actions as there might be no direct interaction and interdependence with the people composing it. For example, a group of friends decided to hang out in a mall. While this group of friends is considered a social group, the same cannot be said about the rest of the people in the mall. The group of friends interacts with one another but not necessarily with the rest of the people in the mall. Furthermore, the group of friends may depend on one another in various aspects, while the rest only belong to an aggregate of people who occupy the same space at a certain time. - Individuals assign great value to their relationships with people within their group, to the extent that it defines their respective identities. Some individuals, for instance, take pride in their group affiliations and often proclaim it publicly. They spend a considerable amount of time getting involved in the various activities of this group. Additionally, these group members also prescribe to the preferences and ways of thinking and doing of its members. As a result, an individual is enculturated as he or she forges a significant bond with the rest of the members of his or her group. - However, not all groups produce positive consequences and benefits for their members. Some groups such as criminal gangs and terrorist groups use violence and force to achieve their objectives. For example, "doomsday" religious cults demand firm and unquestioning loyalty from its followers to the point of physical harm. Meanwhile, there are instances when individuals experience conflict with other members of their group (family, friends, etc.), which could drive them away from the group. For better or for worse, our social groups profoundly define our identity, as well as our roles in society. ## Primary and Secondary Groups - Members of society belong to social groups that vary not only in size but also in the level and depth of interaction and interdependence among its members. An individual is generally closest to his or her immediate family (parents, siblings, first cousins, etc.) but not to his distant relatives. He or she may have deep bonds with his or her close friends but could have cordial or casual relations with other acquaintances. As one enters adulthood, he or she will discover that there are some social groups that will exert a more profound impact on his or her life than others. - Sociologists agree that not all groups are equivalent in terms of their level of importance. A primary group is a small, intimate, and less specialized group whose members engage in face-to-face and emotion-based interactions over an extended period of time. The interdependence among members of a primary group is characterized by a deep and profound relationship with each other. Examples of primary groups include the family, close friends, work-related peers, classmates, and church groups. Every society is comprised of various primary groups that are responsible for the continual social development of its members. - Primary groups are the first groups where an individual experiences his or her initial encounter with social affinity and belonging. It is within these groups that an individual establishes and defines his or her identity, values, ideals, and aspirations. The other members of the primary groups also serve as his or her first agents of socialization. The individual's basic ideas on the different facets of his or her society are significantly shaped by the members of his or her primary groups. - In the Philippines, the primary group affiliation of Filipinos is based on kinship ties. It is through kinship that young Filipinos realize the great importance our culture assigns to the family and its extended nature. Filipinos are among several societies that recognize bilineal kinship which traces lineage from both parents. People are aware of this every time they answer a question regarding their place of origin. A Filipino tends to put emphasis on the place of origin of both his or her father and mother. This is because it is customary in Filipino culture to nurture primary relationships on both sides of the family. This familial network is so strong that Filipinos sometimes build instant affinity with people they do not know but either share a family name or place of origin. - Secondary groups, in contrast, are larger, less intimate, and more specialized groups where members engage in an impersonal and objective-oriented relationship for a limited time. Unlike primary groups, the level of interaction and interdependence within secondary groups is not deep and significant. Furthermore, while an individual knows every member of his or her primary groups at the personal level, the same cannot be said about his or her secondary groups. The impersonal nature of interaction between members of secondary groups allows one to treat others as merely a means to achieve his or her immediate objectives. Individuals also recognize that their membership to these groups is less intrinsic and more instrumental. For example, employees treat their colleagues as a secondary group since they know that they need to cooperate with one another to achieve certain goals in the workplace. Mutual benefit, rather than emotional affinity, becomes the primary driving force that compel individuals to stay together in a secondary group. Another example is the professional relationship between lawyers and clients, and a corporation that has hundreds of employees, stockholders, and shareholders. - Throughout an individual's lifetime, he or she will have different sets of primary and secondary groups. The consensus among social scientists is that much of people's time will be spent with secondary groups given the continued urbanization and expansion of societies. Sociologist Emile Durkheim argued that the shift from traditional to modern society will impact how individuals relate to one another. As the division of labor in society becomes more complex, people will have less time to nurture and interact with their primary groups. This may have negative effects on the personal well-being of individuals, but they can adapt by building more personal and profound relationships with the members of their secondary groups. For example, an employee in a factory may initially consider his workplace as a secondary group but soon fosters a deep bond with his or her colleagues after a considerable amount of time spent together. He or she could also strengthen these relationships through certain cultural practices, such as inviting colleagues to his or her wedding as sponsors, or be the godparents to his or her newborn baby. A ritualistic kinship tie is therefore formed which leads to a primary relationship being established in the workplace—a supposedly secondary group. - The pressure to form a primary relationship within secondary groups is quite high in modern societies. This is also the reason why the notion of a family and the "barkada" as the two major primary groups in a person's life may no longer be as relevant as before. Though primary groups are significant in the formative years of each individual, their influence may decrease upon reaching adulthood. Street gangs and other underworld organizations, for example, may provide the same companionship and emotional support as any other primary group. In other words, incorporation into a group both helps people to adapt to various social processes and attain their goals in life, but may also encourage them to commit wrongdoing or lead others to socially deviant practices. ## In-groups and Out-groups - Another relevant approach in understanding the characteristics of social groups is the self-categorization theory. It proposes that people's appreciation of their group membership is influenced by their perception towards people who are not members of their groups. Basically, people's perceptions of other people as well as other groups are influenced whether they perceive others as members of their group or not. - An in-group is a group to which one belongs and with which one feels a sense of identity. An out-group, meanwhile, is a group to which one does not belong and to which he or she may feel a sense of competitiveness or hostility. For every individual, distinguishing between his or her in-groups and out-groups is essential in developing his or her identity and self-worth. One usually treats members of his or her in-group more favorably than those of his or her out-group. However, people's shifting group memberships throughout their lives means that their notions of in-groups and out-groups are likely to change. - Social scientists identify several characteristics of in-groups. First, members of such groups devise ways to distinguish themselves from nonmembers. This may come in the form of group titles, symbols that represent the group and its members, and even rituals required for membership. These means of identification perform the role of infusing group solidarity as well as exclusivity. Second, members within a certain in-group display positive attitudes and behavior toward their fellow members for the most part, while they may exhibit negative attitudes and even form negative views toward members of their out-groups. These shared feelings form important bonds that further solidify the cohesiveness of the in-group. Lastly, as similarities and shared experiences foster unity and cooperation among group members, differences with nonmembers could transform into feelings of competition and even hostility. The establishment of modern societies is often defined by the creation of boundaries between in-groups and out-groups. - A representative example of the social dynamics between in-groups and out-groups are university fraternities and sororities. A fraternity is an exclusive all-male student organization, while a sorority is an exclusive all-female organization. - A lot of university students join these organizations as they have an extensive list of accomplishments promoting academic excellence, camaraderie, and community service. A fraternity or sorority is also a network that weaves past and present members into an interconnected entity from different generations. This enables them to become powerful groups with a nationwide reach as their older members become influential members of society, government, the private sector, and many other institutions. - To promote cohesion among members, a fraternity or sorority makes every effort to differentiate themselves from their counterparts and even other student organizations. They have their respective names (e.g., Alpha Phi Omega, Sigma Rho, Upsilon Sigma Phi, etc.), symbols, flagship activities, and other markers of differentiation. Certain fraternities, however, have become notorious for their unorthodox initiation rites that have resulted in the deaths of several neophytes or aspiring members. These rites of passage are part of their tradition and are originally intended to generate a sense of intense group loyalty among members through the shared experience of an ordeal. - Apart from experiencing the practice of hazing upon entry into the in-group, it is inevitable for fraternities to engage in some competition, which may result in violence at times. Periodically, people watch or read reports of clashes between rival fraternities. This is an indication of people's distinction between an in-group and an out-group. The solid cohesion within an in-group may come to a point whereby personal squabbles between individual members of different fraternities escalate into an "all-out war" between the entire groups themselves. The negative sentiments or stereotypes toward out-groups breed antagonism, hostility, or even a desire to inflict injury by members of the in-group. This is also pushed by the intention of defending the fraternity's identity and integrity as well as reinforcing the strength within the in-group. However, sometimes, the violence spreads beyond the fraternities. For example, in 1998, an innocent male college student was mistakenly killed in the premises of the University of the Philippines-Diliman campus by a hired gunman of a fraternity who thought he was a member of a rival fraternity. People might wonder how such violent acts prevail in an academic institution such as a university. This behavior relates to the concept of self-categorization, as members of fraternities often lose their individuality and they consider themselves more as members of an exclusive group. Their identity in other groups (university, family, community, etc.) may be overshadowed by their sense of belonging to the in-group. - There are still remaining questions that continue to challenge the dynamics of different groups within a society. Some of these include the extent to which individuals are willing to go on behalf of their in-group as well as the question of how to attain a harmonious coexistence with their out-groups. Another important question is how to extend the intrinsic cohesion within in-groups to out-groups despite their differences in order to maintain order in society. ## Reference Groups - Among the most significant and influential social groups for an individual are his or her reference groups. A reference group is a group to which an individual compares himself or herself. Such groups strongly influence an individual's behavior and social attitudes whether he or she is a member of these groups. Examples of reference groups include an individual's primary groups (family, work colleagues, schoolmates, etc.) or his or her in-groups (church, fellow club members, neighbors in the community, sports team, etc.). Individuals often identify with and emulate the traits of people they feel closest to. For instance, they seek to emulate the career or profession of one of their parents. In other cases, individuals may find themselves outside their reference group and seek to become a member in the future. In this regard, members of the reference group provide models that shape their attitudes, beliefs, and behavior. The reference group is considered a source of role models since the individual uses it as a standard for self-assessment. The tendency of individuals to emulate their desired reference group have led these groups to become powerful agents of socialization. - By now, high school students like yourself should already have an idea of your chosen reference group. It may be a successful sports team, a dance group, a political organization, or even a group of friends in school. Members of a reference group may indirectly apply "peer pressure" for younger or newer members to emulate them or conform to their actions and views. On a more positive note, individuals are provided with an opportunity for self-evaluation and identity formation by having a reference group. For instance, a lawyer exhibiting eloquence and wit during a trial can make a lasting impact on a certain individual's career choice. An articulate and intelligent politician can be a decisive factor for a young person to study political science and engage in politics. A reference group sets itself apart from other groups in the sense that it can mold people's aspirations in life and inspire them to pursue greater things. - It is not necessary for an individual to engage in face-to-face interaction with his or her reference group. He or she might not even meet the members of his or her reference group personally in his or her lifetime. Imitation of reference group behavior can have positive and negative consequences. For example, a young person might consider a rock band as his or her reference group. He or she might form his or her own rock band and draw inspiration from the said reference group in terms of singing, physical appearance, and demeanor. However, he or she may also pick up some of their bad habits like throwing tantrums, displaying unpleasant behavior, and engaging in bad vices such as smoking, drinking, and doing drugs. It is therefore important to have as much information and knowledge regarding a person's reference groups given the critical role that they will play in the future. The social norms people follow, the attitudes they adopt, and the behaviors they exhibit are significantly influenced by those displayed by members of their reference group. ## Networks - How people interact within their established social groups and with other groups in society is often a complicated affair, requiring individuals to situate themselves in a complex web of relationships. Individuals often have overlapping memberships with different social groups, and have varying levels of interactions with each. This leads to various issues and concerns regarding balancing loyalties and identities given the often complex interactions among groups in society. - Sociologists use the concept “network” to understand the complex world of social groups. A network refers to the structure of relationships between social actors or groups. These are interconnections, ties, and linkages between people, their groups, and the larger social institutions to which they all belong to. In the age of the Internet, a good example of networks are those provided by social media platforms such as Facebook, Twitter, or Instagram. One can instantly map his or her own social network through his or her accounts in these online platforms of communication. One can identify close friends, acquaintances, and “followers" as this technological tool lets one envision his or her very own complex web of social interaction and group memberships. Social media is a significant development in the twenty-first century and its rapid evolution continues to change the way people manage the complicated nature of their social relationships and group affinities. - Sociologist and anthropologists differentiate between the networks formed in traditional and modern societies. In traditional or primitive societies, networks are exclusive, limited, and mostly defined by kinship. They provide solidarity through shared identities and a simple division of labor and social roles. Modern society, meanwhile, redefined the "safe and secure" arrangement provided by traditional networks by allowing the individual to become part of a more expanded and cosmopolitan network with overlapping circles of social interaction. Through modern social networks, an individual is provided a diversity of social roles and identities unavailable in more traditional societies. People are more empowered to craft a more complicated set of identities with the help of various social groups whose membership is not based on blood relations and kinship ties. Despite a wide array of differences, individuals become increasingly reliant on their social relationships for support and the means to achieve mutual objectives. People's networks enable them to appreciate and accept differences and diversity within the society, and this mindset contributes to a more stable and intact society. - A network perspective in examining the multitude of social relationships and group memberships entails a dynamic appreciation of their interrelated and interdependent nature. A social network also provides an important context in understanding how various groups are interrelated with one another. For example, if an individual examines his or her entire school's social network, he or she will realize that his or her goals, behavior, norms, attitudes, and beliefs are shaped by how he or she is situated in these networks and his or her relationships to specific groups. Moreover, one will also realize that his or her decisions and actions are not merely a product of individual choice or group membership but are also influenced by one’s interaction with his or her social network. When individuals finish their basic education and enter college, their social networks become more complicated. Their daily lives will be significantly affected by the addition of new group memberships and social relationships. - A social network provides a bigger pool from which people draw their possible sources of identity, self-esteem, and self-actualization. It is the larger source where people find reference groups if their previous ones fail or disappoint them. They may find new reference groups within their ever-growing social network. And sometimes, when they face the stress of social life or the pressures of school and work, they retreat to the more familiar parts of their network such as their family or immediate circle of friends. Some proactively expand their social network as they grab every opportunity to meet new people, establish links, and make connections. - Others are more content with their existing network and will seek to expand it only when necessary. The increasing mobility of people and the diverse opportunities brought about by improved communication and technology are signs that the dual task of maintaining and expanding one's social network will soon become less of a choice but rather a necessity in the years to come. ## Review - A social group is a collection of individuals who have relations with one another that make them interdependent to some significant degree. - The presence of mutual interdependence is what differentiates a social group from a social aggregate. A social aggregate is a mere collection of people in the same place at the same time and does not necessarily influence an individual's social actions due to the lack of direct interaction and interdependence with the people composing it. - A primary group is a small, intimate, and less specialized group whereby members engage in a face-to-face and emotion-based interaction and interdependence over an extended period of time. Secondary groups, in contrast, are larger, less intimate, and more specialized groups whereby members engage in an impersonal and objective-oriented relationships for a limited period of time. - An in-group is a group to which a person belongs and with which he or she feels a sense of identity. An out-group, meanwhile, is a group to which one does not belong and to which he or she may feel a sense of competitiveness or hostility. - A reference group is a group to which an individual compares himself or herself. It has a strong influence on an individual's beliefs, values, behavior, and attitudes. - A network refers to the structure of relationships between social actors or groups. These are interconnections, ties, and linkages between people, their groups, and the larger social institutions to which they all belong. Modern societies feature more expansive, diverse, and overlapping social networks than primitive ones.