Organic Chemistry Sixth Edition Lecture Outline Chapter 3 PDF

Organic Chemistry Sixth Edition Janice Gorzynski Smith University of Hawai’i Chapter 3...

Organic Chemistry Sixth Edition Janice Gorzynski Smith University of Hawai’i Chapter 3 Lecture Outline Prepared by Andrea Leonard University of Louisiana at Lafayette ©2020 McGraw-Hill Education. All rights reserved. Authorized only for instructor use in the classroom. No reproduction or further distribution permitted without the prior written consent of McGraw-Hill Education. 1  Functional Groups A functional group is an atom or a group of atoms with characteristic chemical and physical properties. Most organic molecules contain a carbon backbone consisting of C—C and C—H bonds to which functional groups are attached. Structural features of a functional group include: Heteroatoms—atoms other than carbon or hydrogen. Bonds most commonly occur in C—C and C—O double bonds. ©2020 McGraw-Hill Education. 2  Functional Groups-1 Functional groups distinguish one organic molecule from another. They determine a molecule’s: geometry physical properties reactivity ©2020 McGraw-Hill Education. 3  Reactivity of Functional Groups Heteroatoms and bonds confer reactivity on a particular molecule. Heteroatoms have lone pairs and create electron-deficient sites on carbon. A bond makes a molecule a base and a nucleophile, and is easily broken in chemical reactions. ©2020 McGraw-Hill Education. 4  Parts of a Functional Group ©2020 McGraw-Hill Education. 5  Ethane, a Molecule with No Functional Group This molecule has only C—C and C—H bonds. It contains no polar bonds, lone pairs, or bonds. Therefore, ethane has no reactive sites (functional groups). Consequently, ethane and other alkanes are very unreactive. ©2020 McGraw-Hill Education. 6  Ethanol This molecule has an OH (called a hydroxy group) attached to its backbone. Compounds containing an OH group are called alcohols. The hydroxy group makes the properties of ethanol very different from the properties of ethane. Ethanol has lone pairs and polar bonds that make it reactive. Other molecules with hydroxy groups will have similar properties to ethanol. ©2020 McGraw-Hill Education. 7  Ethanol-1 ©2020 McGraw-Hill Education. 8  Hydrocarbons Hydrocarbons are compounds made up of only the elements carbon and hydrogen. They may be aliphatic (ex. alkanes, alkenes, alkynes) or aromatic. ©2020 McGraw-Hill Education. 9  Aliphatic Hydrocarbons Aliphatic hydrocarbons have three subgroups. Alkanes have only C—C bonds and no functional group. Alkenes have a C—C double bond. Alkynes have a C—C triple bond. ©2020 McGraw-Hill Education. 10  Aromatic Hydrocarbons Aromatic hydrocarbons are so named because many of the earliest known aromatic compounds had strong, characteristic odors. The simplest aromatic hydrocarbon is benzene. The six-membered ring and three bonds of benzene comprise a single functional group, found in most aromatic compounds. ©2020 McGraw-Hill Education. 11  Functional Groups with Carbon- Heteroatom (𝐂−𝐙) 𝝈 bonds Several types of functional groups contain C—Z bonds. The electronegative heteroatom Z creates a polar bond, making carbon electron deficient. ©2020 McGraw-Hill Education. 12  Functional Groups with 𝐂−𝐙 𝝈 bonds ©2020 McGraw-Hill Education. 13  Functional Groups with 𝐂=𝐎 Group This group is called a “carbonyl group”. The polar C—O bond makes the carbonyl carbon an electrophile, while the lone pairs on O allow it to react as a nucleophile and base. The carbonyl group also contains a bond that is more easily broken than a C—O bond. ©2020 McGraw-Hill Education. 14  Functional Groups with 𝐂=𝐎 Group-1 ©2020 McGraw-Hill Education. 15  Importance of Functional Groups A functional group determines all of the following properties of a molecule: bonding and shape type and strength of intermolecular forces physical properties nomenclature chemical reactivity ©2020 McGraw-Hill Education. 16  Intermolecular Forces Intermolecular forces are interactions that exist between molecules. Functional groups determine the type and strength of these interactions. Ionic and covalent compounds have very different intermolecular interactions. ©2020 McGraw-Hill Education. 17  Ion-Ion Interactions Ionic compounds contain oppositely charged particles held together by extremely strong electrostatic interactions. These ionic interactions are much stronger than the intermolecular forces present between covalent molecules. ©2020 McGraw-Hill Education. 18  Intermolecular Forces in Covalent Molecules Covalent compounds are composed of discrete molecules. The nature of the forces between molecules depends on the functional group(s) present. There are three different types of interactions, shown below in order of increasing strength: van der Waals forces dipole-dipole interactions hydrogen bonding ©2020 McGraw-Hill Education. 19  van der Waals Forces van der Waals forces are also known as London forces. They are very weak interactions caused by momentary changes in electron density in a molecule. They are the only attractive forces present in nonpolar compounds. ©2020 McGraw-Hill Education. 20  van der Waals Forces in Methane CH4 has no net dipole. At any one instant its electron density may not be completely symmetrical, resulting in a temporary dipole. This can induce a temporary dipole in another molecule. ©2020 McGraw-Hill Education. 21  van der Waals Forces and Surface Area All compounds exhibit van der Waals forces. The larger the surface area of a molecule, the larger the attractive force between two molecules, and the stronger the intermolecular forces. Figure 3.1 ©2020 McGraw-Hill Education. 22  van der Waals Forces and Polarizability Polarizability is a measure of how the electron cloud around an atom responds to changes in its electronic environment. Larger atoms have more loosely held valence electrons are more polarizable than smaller atoms. Compounds with large, polarizable atoms have stronger intermolecular forces than compounds with small, less polarizable atoms. ©2020 McGraw-Hill Education. 23  Dipole-Dipole Interactions Dipole-dipole interactions are the attractive forces between the permanent dipoles of two polar molecules. The dipoles in adjacent molecules (e.g., acetone below) align so that the partial positive and partial negative charges are in close proximity. These attractive forces caused by permanent dipoles are much stronger than weak van der Waals forces. ©2020 McGraw-Hill Education. 24  Hydrogen Bonding Hydrogen bonding typically occurs when a hydrogen atom bonded to O, N, or F, is electrostatically attracted to a lone pair of electrons on an O, N, or F atom in another molecule. Hydrogen bonding is the strongest of the three types of intermolecular forces. ©2020 McGraw-Hill Education. 25  Intermolecular Forces—Summary As the polarity of an organic molecule increases, so does the strength of its intermolecular forces. ©2020 McGraw-Hill Education. 26  Physical Properties—Boiling Point The boiling point of a compound is the temperature at which liquid molecules are converted into gas. In boiling, energy is needed to overcome the attractive forces in the more ordered liquid state. The stronger the intermolecular forces, the higher the boiling point. For compounds with approximately the same molecular weight: ©2020 McGraw-Hill Education. 27  Boiling Point and Intermolecular Forces The relative strength of the intermolecular forces increases from pentane to butanal to 1-butanol. The boiling points of these compounds increase in the same order. ©2020 McGraw-Hill Education. 28  Other Factors Affecting Boiling Points For compounds with similar functional groups, boiling point increase as: The surface area increases. The polarizability of the atoms increases. Figure 3.2 ©2020 McGraw-Hill Education. 29  Melting Point The melting point is the temperature at which a solid is converted to its liquid phase. In melting, energy is needed to overcome the attractive forces in the more ordered crystalline solid. The stronger the intermolecular forces, the higher the melting point. Given the same functional group, the more symmetrical the compound, the higher the melting point. ©2020 McGraw-Hill Education. 30  Melting Point Trends For covalent molecules of approximately the same molecular weight, the melting point depends upon the identity of the functional group. The stronger the intermolecular attraction, the higher the melting points (the same is true for boiling points). ©2020 McGraw-Hill Education. 31  Effect of Symmetry on Melting Points For compounds having the same functional group and similar molecular weights, the more compact and symmetrical the shape, the higher the melting point. A compact symmetrical molecule like neopentane packs well into a crystalline lattice whereas isopentane does not. Neopentane has a much higher melting point than isopentane. ©2020 McGraw-Hill Education. 32  Solubility Solubility is the extent to which a compound, called a solute, dissolves in a liquid, called a solvent. The energy needed to break up the interactions between the molecules or ions of the solute comes from new interactions between the solute and the solvent. ©2020 McGraw-Hill Education. 33  Solubility Trends Compounds dissolve in solvents having similar kinds of intermolecular forces -- “Like dissolves like.” Polar compounds dissolve in polar solvents like water or alcohols capable of hydrogen bonding with the solute. Nonpolar or weakly polar compounds dissolve in: nonpolar solvents (e.g., carbon tetrachloride and hexane). weakly polar solvents (e.g., diethyl ether). ©2020 McGraw-Hill Education. 34  Solubility of Ionic Compounds Most ionic compounds are soluble in water, but insoluble in organic solvents. To dissolve an ionic compound, the strong ion-ion interactions must be replaced by many weaker ion-dipole interactions. Figure 3.3 ©2020 McGraw-Hill Education. 35  Solubility of Organic Molecules An organic compound is water soluble only if it contains one polar functional group capable of hydrogen bonding with the solvent for every five C atoms it contains. For example, compare the solubility of butane and acetone in H2O and CCl4. ©2020 McGraw-Hill Education. 36  Butane and Acetone Solubility ©2020 McGraw-Hill Education. 37  Water Solubility of Organic Molecules The size of an organic molecule with a polar functional group determines its water solubility. A low molecular weight alcohol like ethanol is water soluble. Cholesterol, with 27 carbon atoms and only one OH group, has a carbon skeleton that is too large for the OH group to solubilize by hydrogen bonding. Therefore, cholesterol is insoluble in water. ©2020 McGraw-Hill Education. 38  Hydrophobic and Hydrophilic The nonpolar part of a molecule that is not attracted to H2O is said to be hydrophobic. The polar part of a molecule that can hydrogen bond to H2O is said to be hydrophilic. In cholesterol, for example, the hydroxy group is hydrophilic, whereas the carbon skeleton is hydrophobic. ©2020 McGraw-Hill Education. 39  Solubility Properties of Representative Compounds ©2020 McGraw-Hill Education. 40  Application—Vitamins Vitamins are organic compounds needed in small amounts for normal cell function. Most cannot be synthesized in our bodies, and must be obtained from the diet. Most are identified by a letter, such as A, C, D, E, and K. There are several different B vitamins, so a subscript is added to distinguish them. Examples are B1, B2, and B12. Vitamins can be fat soluble or water soluble depending on their structure. ©2020 McGraw-Hill Education. 41  Vitamin A Vitamin A is an essential component of the vision receptors in our eyes. Vitamin A, or retinol, may be obtained directly from the diet. It also can be obtained from the conversion of -carotene, the orange pigment found in many plants including carrots, into vitamin A in our bodies. Vitamin A is water insoluble because it contains only one OH group and 20 carbon atoms. ©2020 McGraw-Hill Education. 42  Vitamin C Vitamin C, ascorbic acid, is important in the formation of collagen. Most animals can synthesize vitamin C. Humans must obtain this vitamin from dietary sources, such as citrus fruits. Each carbon atom is bonded to an oxygen which makes it capable of hydrogen bonding, and thus, water soluble. ©2020 McGraw-Hill Education. 43  Soap Structure Figure 3.6 ©2020 McGraw-Hill Education. 44  Structure of the Cell Membrane Phospholipids contain an ionic or polar head, and two long nonpolar hydrocarbon tails. In an aqueous environment, phospholipids form a lipid bilayer, with the polar heads oriented toward the aqueous exterior and the nonpolar tails forming a hydrophobic interior. Figure 3.5 ©2020 McGraw-Hill Education. 45  Transport Across the Cell Membrane-1 Ionophores are organic molecules that complex cations. They have a hydrophobic exterior that makes them soluble in the nonpolar interior of the cell membrane, and a central cavity with several oxygens whose lone pairs complex with a given ion. ©2020 McGraw-Hill Education. 46  Transport Across The Cell Membrane-2 An ionophore transports an ion across a cell membrane (from the side of higher concentration of the ion to a side of lower ion concentration). Figure 3.6 ©2020 McGraw-Hill Education. 47  Crown Ethers Several synthetic ionophores have also been prepared, including one group called crown ethers. Crown ethers are cyclic ethers containing several oxygen atoms that bind specific cations depending on the size of their cavity. ©2020 McGraw-Hill Education. 48  Functional Groups and Electrophiles All functional groups contain a heteroatom, a bond or both. These features create electrophilic sites and nucleophilic sites in a molecule. Electron-rich sites (nucleophiles) react with electron poor sites (electrophiles). An electronegative heteroatom like N, O, or X makes a carbon atom electrophilic as shown below. ©2020 McGraw-Hill Education. 49  Nucleophilic Sites in Molecules A lone pair on a heteroatom makes it basic and nucleophilic. bonds create nucleophilic sites and are more easily broken than bonds. ©2020 McGraw-Hill Education. 50  Reaction of p Bonds with Electrophiles An electron-rich carbon reacts with an electrophile, symbolized as E+. For example, alkenes contain an electron-rich double bond, and so they react with electrophiles E+. ©2020 McGraw-Hill Education. 51  Reaction of Nucleophiles with Electrophiles Alkyl halides possess an electrophilic carbon atom, so they react with electron-rich nucleophiles. ©2020 McGraw-Hill Education. 52  Biomolecules Biomolecules are organic compounds found in biological systems. Many are relatively small with molecular weights of less than 1000 g/mol. Biomolecules often have several functional groups. ©2020 McGraw-Hill Education. 53  Families of Biomolecules There are four main families of small biomolecules: Simple sugars: combine to form complex carbohydrates like starch and cellulose (Covered in Chapter 28) Amino acids: join together to form proteins (Chapter 29) Nucleotides: combine to form DNA (Chapter 28) Lipids: commonly form from fatty acids and alcohols (Chapters 10, 22, and 30) ©2020 McGraw-Hill Education. 54  DNA Double Helix DNA is contained in the chromosomes in the nucleus of the cell: Stores all the genetic information in an organism Consists of two long strands of polynucleotides held together by hydrogen bonding Figure 3.7 ©2020 McGraw-Hill Education. 55