Nuclear Physics & Radioactivity PDF

Ba Nuclear Physics & Radioactivity 81 92U 235 92U 236 60 Kr E3 Rutherford's -scattering experiment established that the mass of atom is concentrated with small positively charged region at the centre which is called e– 'nucleus'. Nuclei are made up of proton and neutron. The number of ID protons in...

Ba Nuclear Physics & Radioactivity 81 92U 235 92U 236 60 Kr E3 Rutherford's -scattering experiment established that the mass of atom is concentrated with small positively charged region at the centre which is called e– 'nucleus'. Nuclei are made up of proton and neutron. The number of ID protons in a nucleus (called the atomic number or proton number) is represented by the symbol Z. The number of neutrons (neutron number) is represented by N. The total number of neutrons and protons in a nucleus is called it's mass number A so A = Z + N. e– e– U Neutrons and proton, when described collectively are called nucleons. D YG Nucleus contains two types of particles : Protons and neutrons Nuclides are represented as Neutron. Z X A ; where X denotes the chemical symbol of the element. Neutron is a fundamental particle which is essential constituent of all nuclei except that of hydrogen atom. It was discovered by Chadwick. (1) The charge of neutron : It is neutral U (2) The mass of neutron : 1.6750  10–27 kg (3) It's spin angular momentum : 1  h   J -s 2  2  ST (4) It's magnetic moment : 9.57  10–27 J/Tesla A free neutron outside the nucleus is unstable and decays into proton and electron. 0n 1 1 1H Proton  0 1  Electron   Antinutrino (5) It's half life : 12 minutes (6) Penetration power : High (7) Types : Neutrons are of two types slow neutron and fast neutron, both are fully capable of penetrating a nucleus and causing artificial disintegration. Thermal neutrons Fast neutrons can be converted into slow neutrons by certain materials called moderator's (Paraffin wax, heavy water, graphite) when fast moving neutrons pass through a moderator, they collide with the molecules of the moderator, as a result of this, the energy of moving neutron decreases while that of the molecules of the moderator increases. After sometime they 82 Nuclear Physics & Radioactivity both attains same energy. The neutrons are then in thermal equilibrium with the molecules of the moderator and are called thermal neutrons. Note :  Energy of thermal neutron is about 0.025 eV and speed is about 2.2 km/s. 60 Nucleus. (1) Different types of nuclei The nuclei have been classified on the basis of the number of protons (atomic number) or the total number of nucleons (mass number) as follows E3 (i) Isotopes : The atoms of element having same atomic number but different mass number are called isotopes. All isotopes have the same chemical properties. The isotopes of some elements are the following 1 , 1H 2, 1H 3 8O 16 , 8 O17 , 8 O18 2 He 3 , 2 He 4 17 Cl 35 , 17 Cl 37 92 U 235 , 92 U 238 ID 1H 1H 3 and 2 He 3 , 6C 14 U (ii) Isobars : The nuclei which have the same mass number (A) but different atomic number (Z) are called isobars. Isobars occupy different positions in periodic table so all isobars have different chemical properties. Some of the examples of isobars are and 7 N 14 , 8 O 17 and 9F 17 D YG (iii) Isotones : The nuclei having equal number of neutrons are called isotones. For them both the atomic number (Z) and mass number (A) are different, but the value of (A – Z) is same. Some examples are 4 Be 9 and 5 B 10 , 6 C 13 and 7 N 14 , 8 O 18 and 9F 19 , 3 Li 7 and 4 Be 8 , 1 H 3 and 2 He 4 U (iv) Mirror nuclei : Nuclei having the same mass number A but with the proton number (Z) and neutron number (A – Z) interchanged (or whose atomic number differ by 1) are called mirror nuclei for example. 1H 3 and 2 He 3 , 3 Li 7 and 4 Be 7 ST (2) Size of nucleus (i) Nuclear radius : Experimental results indicates that the nuclear radius is proportional to A 1/3 , where A is the mass number of nucleus i.e. R  A1 / 3  R  R 0 A 1 / 3 , where R0 = 1.2  10–15 m = 1.2 fm. Note :  Heavier nuclei are bigger in size than lighter nuclei. (ii) Nuclear volume : The volume of nucleus is given by V  4 4  R 3   R03 A  V  A 3 3 (iii) Nuclear density : Mass per unit volume of a nucleus is called nuclear density. Nuclear Physics & Radioactivity 83 Nuclear density ( )  Mass of nucleus mA  4 Volume of nucleus  (R 0 A 1 / 3 ) 3 3 where m = Average of mass of a nucleon (= mass of proton + mass of neutron = 1.66  10–27 and mA = Mass of nucleus   3m  2.38  10 17 kg / m 3 3 4R 0 E3 Note :   is independent of A, it means  is same of all atoms. 60 kg)  Density of a nucleus is maximum at it's centre and decreases as we move outwards from the nucleus. ID (3) Nuclear force Forces that keep the nucleons bound in the nucleus are called nuclear forces. large distances greater than 10–15 m. U (i) Nuclear forces are short range forces. These do not exist at D YG (ii) Nuclear forces are the strongest forces in nature. (iii) These are attractive force and causes stability of the nucleus. (iv) These forces are charge independent. At low speeds, electromagnetic repulsion prevents the collision of nuclei At high speeds, nuclei come close enough for the strong force to bind them together. (v) Nuclear forces are non-central force. Nuclear forces are exchange forces U According to scientist Yukawa the nuclear force between the two nucleons is the result of the exchange of particles called mesons between the nucleons. ST  - mesons are of three types – Positive  meson (+), negative  meson ( –), neutral  meson (0) The force between neutron and proton is due to exchange of charged meson between them i.e. p    n, n p   The forces between a pair of neutrons or a pair of protons are the result of the exchange of neutral meson (o) between them i.e. p p ' 0 and n n' 0 Thus exchange of  meson between nucleons keeps the nucleons bound together. It is responsible for the nuclear forces. 84 Nuclear Physics & Radioactivity Dog-Bone analogy The above interactions can be explained with the dog bone analogy according to which we consider the two interacting nucleons to be two dogs 60 having a common bone clenched in between their teeth very firmly. Each one of these dogs wants to take the bone and hence they cannot be separated easily. They seem to be bound to each other with a strong attractive force (which is the bone) though the dogs themselves are strong enemies. The meson plays the same role of the common bone in between two nucleons. E3 (4) Atomic mass unit (amu) The unit in which atomic and nuclear masses are measured is called atomic mass unit (amu) 1 th of mass of 6 C 12 atom = 1.66  10–27 kg 12 Masses of electron, proton and neutrons ID 1 amu (or 1u) = U Mass of electron (me) = 9.1  10–31 kg = 0.0005486 amu, Mass of proton (mp) = 1.6726  10–27 kg = 1.007276 amu D YG Mass of neutron (mn) = 1.6750  10–27 kg = 1.00865 amu, Mass of hydrogen atom (me + mp) = 1.6729  10–27 kg = 1.0078 amu Mass-energy equivalence According to Einstein, mass and energy are inter convertible. The Einstein's mass energy relationship is given by E  mc 2 U If m = 1 amu, c = 3  108 m/sec then E = 931 MeV i.e. 1 amu is equivalent to 931 MeV or 1 amu (or 1 u) = 931 MeV (5) Pair production and pair-annihilation ST When an energetic -ray photon falls on a heavy substance. It is absorbed by some nucleus of the substance and an electron and a positron are produced. This phenomenon is called pair production and may be represented by the following equation The rest-mass energy of each of positron and electron is E0 = m0c2 = (9.1  10–31 kg)  (3.0  108 m/s)2 h (  photon)  0  1 0 (Positron) +1 h +Ze -photon Nucleus –1 = 8.2  10 –14 0 1  (Electron) 0 J = 0.51 MeV Hence, for pair-production it is essential that the energy of -photon must be at least 2  0.51 = 1.02 MeV. If the energy of -photon is less than this, it would cause photo-electric effect or Compton effect on striking the matter. Nuclear Physics & Radioactivity 85 The converse phenomenon pair-annihilation is also possible. Whenever an electron and a positron come very close to each other, they annihilate each other by combining together and two -photons (energy) are produced. This phenomenon is called pair annihilation and is represented by the following equation.  0 1  (Electron)  h ( - photon )  h ( - photon ) 60 0 1  (Positron) (6) Nuclear stability E3 Among about 1500 known nuclides, less than 260 are stable. The others are unstable that decay to form other nuclides by emitting , -particles and  - EM waves. (This process is called N  (i) Neutron-proton ratio  Ratio  Z  ID radioactivity). The stability of nucleus is determined by many factors. Few such factors are given below : The chemical properties of an atom are governed entirely by the number of protons (Z) in U the nucleus, the stability of an atom appears to depend on both the number of protons and the number of neutrons. D YG For lighter nuclei, the greatest stability is achieved when the number of protons and N neutrons are approximately equal (N  Z) i.e. 1 Z Heavy nuclei are stable only when they have more neutrons than protons. Thus heavy nuclei are neutron rich compared to lighter nuclei (for heavy nuclei, more is the number of Neutron number (N) ST U protons in the nucleus, greater is the electrical repulsive force between them. Therefore more neutrons are added to provide the strong attractive forces necessary to keep the nucleus stable.) Stable nuclei (Line of stability) N=Z 10 20 3040 50 60 70 8090 Proton number (Z) Figure shows a plot of N verses Z for the stable nuclei. For mass number upto about A = 40. For larger value of Z the nuclear force is unable to hold the nucleus together against the electrical repulsion of the protons unless the number of neutrons exceeds the number of 86 Nuclear Physics & Radioactivity protons. At Bi (Z = 83, A = 209), the neutron excess in N – Z = 43. There are no stable nuclides with Z > 83. Note :  The nuclide 83 Bi 209 is the heaviest stable nucleus. 60  A nuclide above the line of stability i.e. having excess neutrons, decay through   E3 A nuclide below the line of stability have excess number of protons. It decays by   emission, results in decreasing Z N emission, the ratio increases. Z  N=Z + Proton number (Z) ID and increasing N. In   Neutron Number (N) emission (neutron changes into proton). Thus increasing atomic number Z and N decreasing neutron number N. In   emission, ratio Z decreases. – U (ii) Even or odd numbers of Z or N : The stability of a nuclide is also determined by the consideration whether it contains an even or odd number of protons and neutrons. It is found that an even-even nucleus (even Z and even N) is more stable (60% of stable nuclide have even Z and even N). D YG An even-odd nucleus (even Z and odd N) or odd-even nuclide (odd Z and even N) is found to be lesser sable while the odd-odd nucleus is found to be less stable. Only five stable odd-odd nuclides are known : 1 H 2 , 3 Li 6 , 5 Be 10 , 7 N 14 and 75 Ta 180 (iii) Binding energy per nucleon : The stability of a nucleus is determined by value of it's binding energy per nucleon. In general higher the value of binding energy per nucleon, more stable the nucleus is U Mass Defect and Binding Energy. ST (1) Mass defect (m) It is found that the mass of a nucleus is always less than the sum of masses of it's constituent nucleons in free state. This difference in masses is called mass defect. Hence mass defect m = Sum of masses of nucleons – Mass of nucleus  Zm p  ( A  Z)m n  M  Zm p  Zm e  ( A  Z)m z  M ' where mp = Mass of proton, m n = Mass of each neutron, me = Mass of each electron M = Mass of nucleus, Z = Atomic number, A = Mass number, M = Mass of atom as a whole. Nuclear Physics & Radioactivity 87 Note :  The mass of a typical nucleus is about 1% less than the sum of masses of nucleons. (2) Packing fraction Mass defect per nucleon is called packing fraction m M  A where M = Mass of nucleus, A = Mass number  A A 40 30 20 E3 Packing fraction measures the stability of a nucleus. Smaller the value of packing fraction, larger is the stability of the nucleus. 60 Packing fraction (f )  (i) Packing fraction may be of positive, negative or zero value. N0/8 – 10 – 20 A > 240 Mass number (A) ID (iii) At A = 16, f Zero 10 0 U (3) Binding energy (B.E.) D YG The neutrons and protons in a stable nucleus are held together by nuclear forces and energy is needed to pull them infinitely apart (or the same energy is released during the formation of the nucleus). This energy is called the binding energy of the nucleus. or The binding energy of a nucleus may be defined as the energy equivalent to the mass defect of the nucleus. If m is mass defect then according to Einstein's mass energy relation Binding energy = m  c2 = [{mpZ + mn(A – Z)} – M] c2 U (This binding energy is expressed in joule, because m is measured in kg) ST If m is measured in amu then binding energy = m amu = [{mpZ + mn(A – Z)} – M] amu = m  931 MeV (4) Binding energy per nucleon The average energy required to release a nucleon from the nucleus is called binding energy per nucleon. Binding energy per nucleon  Total bind ing energy m  931 MeV  Mass number (i.e. total number of nucleons) A Nucleon Binding energy per nucleon  Stability of nucleus 88 Nuclear Physics & Radioactivity Binding Energy Curve. 56 26Fe 60 8.0 He 6.0 4.0 Li 2.0 H2 0 56 100 150 E3 Binding energy per nucleon (MeV) It is the graph between binding energy per nucleon and total number of nucleons (i.e. mass number A) 200 ID Mass number A (1) Some nuclei with mass number A < 20 have large binding energy per nucleon than their neighbour nuclei. For example 2 He 4 , 4 Be 8 , 6 C 12 , 8 O 16 and 20. These nuclei are more stable U than their neighbours. 10 Ne (2) The binding energy per nucleon is maximum for nuclei of mass number A = 56 ( 26 Fe 56 ). D YG It's value is 8.8 MeV per nucleon. (3) For nuclei having A > 56, binding energy per nucleon gradually decreases for uranium (A = 238), the value of binding energy per nucleon drops to 7.5 MeV. Note :  When a heavy nucleus splits up into lighter nuclei, then binding energy per nucleon of lighter nuclei is more than that of the original heavy nucleus. Thus a large amount of energy is liberated in this process (nuclear fission). U  When two very light nuclei combines to form a relatively heavy nucleus, then ST binding energy per nucleon increases. Thus, energy is released in this process (nuclear fusion). B. E. A + + Fusio n Fissio n A Nuclear Reactions. The process by which the identity of a nucleus is changed when it is bombarded by an energetic particle is called nuclear reaction. The general expression for the nuclear reaction is as follows. Nuclear Physics & Radioactivity 89  X (Parent nucleus) a (Incident particle)  C (Compound nucleus)  Y  (Compound nucleus) b  Q (Product particles) (Energy) Here X and a are known as reactants and Y and b are known as products. This reaction is (1) Q value or energy of nuclear reaction 60 known as (a, b) reaction and can be represented as X(a, b) Y The energy absorbed or released during nuclear reaction is known as Q-value of nuclear reaction. E3 Q-value = (Mass of reactants – mass of products)c2 Joules = (Mass of reactants – mass of products) amu ID If Q < 0, The nuclear reaction is known as endothermic. (The energy is absorbed in the reaction) If Q > 0, The nuclear reaction is known as exothermic (The energy is released in the reaction) U (2) Law of conservation in nuclear reactions (i) Conservation of mass number and charge number : In the following nuclear reaction He 4  7 N 14 8 O 17  1 H 1 D YG 2 Mass number (A) Before the reaction 4 +14 = 18 Charge number (Z) 2+7=9 After the reaction 17 + 1 = 18 8+1=9 (ii) Conservation of momentum : Linear momentum/angular momentum of particles before U the reaction is equal to the linear/angular momentum of the particles after the reaction. That is p = 0 ST (iii) Conservation of energy : Total energy before the reaction is equal to total energy after the reaction. Term Q is added to balance the total energy of the reaction. (3) Common nuclear reactions The nuclear reactions lead to artificial transmutation of nuclei. Rutherford was the first to carry out artificial transmutation of nitrogen to oxygen in the year 1919. 2 He 4  7 N 14 9 F 18 8 O 17  1 H 1 It is called (, p) reaction. Some other nuclear reactions are given as follows. (p, n) reaction  1H 1  5 B 11 6 C 12 6 C 11  0 n 1 (p, ) reaction  1H 1  3 Li 11 4 Be 8 2 He 4  2 He 4 90 Nuclear Physics & Radioactivity (p, ) reaction  1H 1  6 C 12 7 N 13 7 N 13   (n, p) reaction  0n (, n) reaction    1 H 2 1 H 1  0 n1 1  7 N 14 7 N 15 6 C 14  1 H 1 60 Nuclear Fission and Fusion. Nuclear fission E3 The process of splitting of a heavy nucleus into two lighter nuclei of comparable masses (after bombardment with a energetic particle) with liberation of energy is called nuclear fission. (1) Fission reaction of U235 (i) Nuclear reaction : 235  0 n1 236 92 U (unstable nucleus) 56 Ba 141  36 Kr U 92 U ID The phenomenon of nuclear fission was discovered by scientist Ottohann and F. Strassman and was explained by N. Bohr and J.A. Wheeler on the basis of liquid drop model of nucleus. 92  3 0 n1  Q D YG (ii) The energy released in U235 fission is about 200 MeV or 0.8 MeV per nucleon. (iii) By fission of 92 U 235 , on an average 2.5 neutrons are liberated. These neutrons are called fast neutrons and their energy is about 2 MeV (for each). These fast neutrons can escape from the reaction so as to proceed the chain reaction they are need to slow down. (iv) Fission of U235 occurs by slow neutrons only (of energy about 1eV) or even by thermal neutrons (of energy about 0.025 eV). U (v) 50 kg of U235 on fission will release  4 × 1015 J of energy. This is equivalence to 20,000 tones of TNT explosion. The nuclear bomb dropped at Hiroshima had this much explosion power. ST (vi) The mass of the compound nucleus must be greater than the sum of masses of fission products. (vii) The Binding energy of compound nucleus must be less than that of the fission products. A (viii) It may be pointed out that it is not necessary that in each fission of uranium, the two fragments 56 Ba and 36 Kr are formed but they may be any stable isotopes of middle weight atoms. Same other U 235 fission reactions are 92 U 235  0 n 1 54 Xe 140  38 Sr 94  2 0 n 1 Nuclear Physics & Radioactivity 91 57 La 148  35 Br 85  3 0 n 1 Many more (ix) The neutrons released during the fission process are called prompt neutrons. Ba Energ y Energ y Neutron 92U 235 92U E3 Slow 60 (x) Most of energy released appears in the form of kinetic energy of fission fragments. 236 Energ y ID Energ Kr y (2) Chain reaction In nuclear fission, three neutrons are produced along with the release of large energy. D YG U Under favourable conditions, these neutrons can cause further fission of other nuclei, producing large number of neutrons. Thus a chain of nuclear fissions is established which continues until the whole of the uranium is consumed. Kr U Ba Kr n U Kr U Ba ST U Ba In the chain reaction, the number of nuclei undergoing fission increases very fast. So, the energy produced takes a tremendous magnitude very soon. Difficulties in chain reaction (i) Absorption of neutrons by U 238 , the major part in natural uranium is the isotope U238 (99.3%), the isotope U 235 is very little (0.7%). It is found that U 238 is fissionable with fast neutrons, whereas U 235 is fissionable with slow neutrons. Due to the large percentage of U 238 , there is more possibility of collision of neutrons with U 238. It is found that the neutrons get slowed on coliding with U 238 , as a result of it further fission of U238 is not possible (Because they are slow and they are absorbed by U238). This stops the chain reaction. 92 Nuclear Physics & Radioactivity Removal : (i) To sustain chain reaction Uranium so obtained  92 U 235 92 U 235 is separated from the ordinary uranium.  is known as enriched uranium, which is fissionable with the fast and slow neutrons and hence chain reaction can be sustained. (ii) If neutrons are slowed down by any method to an energy of about 0.3 eV, then the 60 probability of their absorption by U 238 becomes very low, while the probability of their fissioning U 235 becomes high. This job is done by moderators. Which reduce the speed of neutron rapidly graphite and heavy water are the example of moderators. E3 (iii) Critical size : The neutrons emitted during fission are very fast and they travel a large distance before being slowed down. If the size of the fissionable material is small, the neutrons emitted will escape the fissionable material before they are slowed down. Hence chain reaction cannot be sustained. ID Removal : The size of the fissionable material should be large than a critical size. The chain reaction once started will remain steady, accelerate or retard depending upon, a factor called neutron reproduction factor (k). It is defined as follows. Rate of product ion of neutrons Rate of loss of neutrons U k D YG If k = 1, the chain reaction will be steady. The size of the fissionable material used is said to be the critical size and it's mass, the critical mass. If k > 1, the chain reaction accelerates, resulting in an explosion. The size of the material in this case is super critical. (Atom bomb) If k < 1, the chain reaction gradually comes to a halt. The size of the material used us said to be sub-critical. U Types of chain reaction : Chain reactions are of following two types Controlled chain reaction ST Controlled by artificial method Uncontrolled chain reaction No control over this type of nuclear reaction All neurons are absorbed except one More than one neutron takes part into reaction It's rate is slow Fast rate Reproduction factor k = 1 Reproduction factor k > 1 Energy liberated in this type of reaction is always less than explosive energy A large amount of energy is liberated in this type of reaction Chain reaction is the principle of nuclear Uncontrolled chain reaction is the principle of reactors atom bomb. Nuclear Physics & Radioactivity 93 Note :  The energy released in the explosion of an atom bomb is equal to the energy released by 2000 tonn of TNT and the temperature at the place of explosion is of the order of 107 oC. Nuclear Reactor. 60 A nuclear reactor is a device in which nuclear fission can be carried out through a sustained and a controlled chain reaction. It is also called an atomic pile. It is thus a source of controlled Cadmium energy which is utilised for many useful purposes. Core rods E3 Coolant Coolant out Turbin e To electric generator Concret e wall Moderato r ID Condenser Water Heat Coolant in exchange r D YG (1) Parts of nuclear reactor U Fuel elements (i) Fissionable material (Fuel) : The fissionable material used in the reactor is called the fuel of the reactor. Uranium isotope (U235) Thorium isotope (Th232) and Plutonium isotopes (Pu239, Pu240 and Pu241) are the most commonly used fuels in the reactor. (ii) Moderator : Moderator is used to slow down the fast moving neutrons. Most commonly used moderators are graphite and heavy water (D2O). ST U (iii) Control Material : Control material is used to control the chain reaction and to maintain a stable rate of reaction. This material controls the number of neutrons available for the fission. For example, cadmium rods are inserted into the core of the reactor because they can absorb the neutrons. The neutrons available for fission are controlled by moving the cadmium rods in or out of the core of the reactor. (iv) Coolant : Coolant is a cooling material which removes the heat generated due to fission in the reactor. Commonly used coolants are water, CO2 nitrogen etc. (v) Protective shield : A protective shield in the form a concrete thick wall surrounds the core of the reactor to save the persons working around the reactor from the hazardous radiations. Note :  It may be noted that Plutonium is the best fuel as compared to other fissionable material. It is because fission in Plutonium can be initiated by both slow and fast neutrons. Moreover it can be obtained from U 238.  Nuclear reactor is firstly devised by fermi.  Apsara was the first Indian nuclear reactor. 94 Nuclear Physics & Radioactivity (2) Uses of nuclear reactor (i) In electric power generation. (iii) In manufacturing of PU 239 which is used in atom bomb. 60 (ii) To produce radioactive isotopes for their use in medical science, agriculture and industry. (iv) They are used to produce neutron beam of high intensity which is used in the treatment of cancer and nuclear research. E3 Note :  A type of reactor that can produce more fissile fuel than it consumes is the breeder reactor. Nuclear fusion ID In nuclear fusion two or more than two lighter nuclei combine to form a single heavy nucleus. The mass of single nucleus so formed is less than the sum of the masses of parent nuclei. This difference in mass results in the release of tremendous amount of energy 2  1 H 2 1 H 3  1 H 1  4 MeV 1H 3  1 H 2 2 He 4  0 n 1  17.6 MeV or 2  1 H 2 2 He 4  24 MeV D YG 1H U 1H For fusion high pressure ( 106 atm) and high temperature (of the order of 107 K to 108 K) is required and so the reaction is called thermonuclear reaction. Fusion energy is greater then fission energy fission of one uranium atom releases about 200 MeV of energy. But the fusion of a deutron (1 H 2 ) and triton (1 H 3 ) releases about 17.6 MeV U of energy. However the energy released per nucleon in fission is about 0.85 MeV but that in fusion is 4.4 MeV. So for the same mass of the fuel, the energy released in fusion is much larger than in fission. ST Plasma : The temperature of the order of 108 K required for thermonuclear reactions leads to the complete ionisation of the atom of light elements. The combination of base nuclei and electron cloud is called plasma. The enormous gravitational field of the sun confines the plasma in the interior of the sun. The main problem to carryout nuclear fusion in the laboratory is to contain the plasma at a temperature of 108K. No solid container can tolerate this much temperature. If this problem of containing plasma is solved, then the large quantity of deuterium present in sea water would be able to serve as in-exhaustible source of energy. Note :  To achieve fusion in laboratory a device is used to confine the plasma, called Tokamak. Stellar Energy Stellar energy is the energy obtained continuously from the sun and the stars. Sun radiates energy at the rate of about 1026 joules per second. Nuclear Physics & Radioactivity 95 Scientist Hans Bethe suggested that the fusion of hydrogen to form helium (thermo nuclear reaction) is continuously taking place in the sun (or in the other stars) and it is the source of sun's (star's) energy. The stellar energy is explained by two cycles Carbon-nitrogen cycle 1H 1  1 H 1 1 H 2  1 e 0  Q1 1H 1H 2  1 H 1 2 He 3  Q 2 7 3  2 He 3 2 He 4  2 1 H 1  Q 3  6 C 12 7 N 13  Q1 N 13 6 C 13  1H 1 1 e 0  6 C 13 7 N 14  Q 2 E3 2 He 1 60 Proton-proton cycle 4 1 H 1 2 He 4  2 1e 0  2  26.7 MeV 1H 1  7 N 14 8 O 15  Q 3 8O 15 7 N 15  1 e 0  Q 4 1H 1  7 N 15 6 C 12  2 He 4 ID 4 1 H 1 2 He 4  2 1 e 0  24.7 MeV About 90% of the mass of the sun consists of hydrogen and helium. U Nuclear Bomb. Based on uncontrolled nuclear reactions. D YG Atom bomb Hydrogen bomb Based on fusion process. Mixture of deutron and tritium is used in it In this critical size is important There is no limit to critical size Explosion is possible at normal temperature and pressure High temperature and pressure are required Less energy is released compared to hydrogen bomb More energy is released as compared to atom bomb so it is more dangerous than atom bomb Concepts ST   U Based on fission process it involves the fission of U235  A test tube full of base nuclei will weight heavier than the earth. The nucleus of hydrogen contains only one proton. Therefore we may say that the proton is the nucleus of hydrogen atom. If the relative abundance of isotopes in an element has a ratio n1 : n2 whose atomic masses are m1 and m2 n m  n2 m 2 then atomic mass of the element is M  1 1 n1  n2 Example s Example: 1 A heavy nucleus at rest breaks into two fragments which fly off with velocities in the ratio 8 : 1. The ratio of radii of the fragments is (a) 1 : 2 (b) 1 : 4 (c) 4 : 1 (d) 2 : 1 96 Nuclear Physics & Radioactivity Solution : (a) v1 By conservation of momentum m1v1 = m2v2 m1  M v1 8 m 2   v 2 1 m1 …… (i) m2 1/3 27 13 The ratio of radii of nuclei (a) 6 : 10 Al and 125 52 Te is approximately (b) 13 : 52 1/3 r1  A1    r2  A2  (c) 40 : 177 1/3  27     125  1/3 1   8  1 2 (d) 14 : 7 E3 Example: 2 r1  A1    r2  A2  60 Also from r  A1 / 3  v2 8 6  5 10 Solution : (a) By using r  A1 / 3  Example: 3 If Avogadro’s number is 6  1023 then the number of protons, neutrons and electrons in 14 g of 6C14 are respectively (c) 48  1023, 36  1023, 48  1021 (d) 48  1023, 48  1023, 36  1021 Since the number of protons, neutrons and electrons in an atom of respectively. As 14 gm of 6C 14 contains 6  10 23 U Solution : (a) (b) 36  1023, 36  1023, 36  1021 ID (a) 36  1023, 48  1023, 36  1023 neutrons and electrons in 14 gm of 6 C , 6  6  10 23  36  10 23. are 6C 14 are 6, 8 and 6 atoms, therefore the numbers of protons, 6  6  10 23  36  10 23 , 8  6  10 23  48  10 23 Two Cu64 nuclei touch each other. The electrostatics repulsive energy of the system will be (a) 0.788 MeV Solution : (c) 14 D YG Example: 4  (b) 7.88 MeV Radius of each nucleus R  R0 ( A) 1/3 (c) 126.15 MeV  1.2 (64 ) 1/3 (d) 788 MeV  4.8 fm Distance between two nuclei (r) = 2R So potential energy U  When 92 U 235 undergoes fission. 0.1% of its original mass is changed into energy. How much U Example: 5 k q2 9  10 9  (1.6  10 19  29 ) 2   126.15 MeV. r 2  4.8  10 15  1.6  10 19 energy is released if 1 kg of 235 undergoes fission[MP PET 1994; MP PMT/PET 1998; BHU 2001; BVP 200 (b) 9  1011 J (c) 9  1012 J ST (a) 9  1010 J 92 U Solution : (d) Example: 6  0.1   1  (3  10 8 )2  9  10 13 J By using E  m  c 2  E    100  1 g of hydrogen is converted into 0.993 g of helium in a thermonuclear reaction. The energy released is (a) 63  107 J Solution : (b) (d) 9  1013 J [EAMCET (Med.) 1995; CPMT 1999] (b) 63  1010 J (c) 63  1014 J (d) 63  1020 J m = 1 – 0.993 = 0.007 gm  E = mc2 = 0.007  10–3  (3  108)2 = 63  1010 J Example: 7 The binding energy per nucleon of deuteron (12 H ) and helium nucleus (42 He ) is 1.1 MeV and 7 MeV respectively. If two deuteron nuclei react to form a single helium nucleus, then the energy released is Nuclear Physics & Radioactivity 97 [MP PMT 1992; Roorkee 1994; IIT-JEE 1996; AIIMS 1997; Haryana PMT 2000; Pb PMT 2001; CPMT 2001; AIEEE 2004] (a) 13.9 MeV Solution : (c) 1H 2 (b) 26.9 MeV (c) 23.6 MeV (d) 19.2 MeV  1 H 2 He  Q 2 4 Total binding energy of helium nucleus = 4  7 = 28 MeV Hence energy released = 28 – 2  2.2 = 23.6 MeV The masses of neutron and proton are 1.0087 amu and 1.0073 amu respectively. If the neutrons and protons combine to form a helium nucleus (alpha particles) of mass 4.0015 amu. The binding energy of the helium nucleus will be [1 amu= 931 MeV] (a) 28.4 MeV Solution : (a) (b) 20.8 MeV (c) 27.3 MeV (d) 14.2 MeV E3 Example: 8 60 Total binding energy of each deutron = 2  1.1 = 2.2 MeV Helium nucleus consist of two neutrons and two protons. So binding energy E = m amu = m  931 MeV  E = (2  mp + 2mn – M)  931 MeV = (2  1.0073 + 2  1.0087 – 4.0015)  931 = 28.4 MeV (a) 5  1015 Solution : (c) ID A atomic power reactor furnace can deliver 300 MW. The energy released due to fission of each of uranium atom U 238 is 170 MeV. The number of uranium atoms fissioned per hour will be [UPSEAT 2000] (b) 10  1020 By using P  W n E  t t D YG 300  10 6  n  170  10 6  1.6  10 19 3600  n = 40  1021 The binding energy per nucleon of O16 is 7.97 MeV and that of O17 is 7.75 MeV. The energy (in MeV) required to remove a neutron from O17 is (a) 3.52 Solution : (c) (d) 30  1025 where n = Number of uranium atom fissioned and E = Energy released due to each fission so Example: 10 (c) 40  1021 U Example: 9 (b) 3.64 (c) 4.23 (d) 7.86 O17 O16  0n1  Energy required = Binding of O17 – binding energy of O16 = 17  7.75 – 16  7.97 = 4.23 MeV A gamma ray photon creates an electron-positron pair. If the rest mass energy of an electron is 0.5 MeV and the total kinetic energy of the electron-positron pair is 0.78 MeV, then the energy of the gamma ray photon must be U Example: 11 (a) 0.78 MeV (b) 1.78 MeV (c) 1.28 MeV Energy of -rays photon = 0.5 + 0.5 +0.78 = 1.78 MeV Example: 12 What is the mass of one Curie of U234 ST Solution : (b) (a) 3.7  10 Solution : (c) 10 gm (b) 2.348  10 23 [MNR 1985] gm (c) 1.48  10 –11 gm (d) 6.25  10 –34 gm 1 curie = 3.71  1010 disintegration/sec and mass of 6.02  1023 atoms of U 234  234 gm  Mass of 3.71  1010 atoms  Example: 13 (d) 0.28 MeV 234  3.71  10 10 In the nuclear fusion reaction 6.02  10 2 1H 23  1.48  10 11 gm 13 H 42 He  n, given that the repulsive potential energy between the two nuclei is  7.7  10 14 J , the temperature at which the gases must be heated to initiate the reaction is nearly [Boltzmann’s constant k  1.38  10 23 J /K ] (a) 10 9 K (b) 10 7 K (c) 10 5 K (d) 10 3 K 98 Nuclear Physics & Radioactivity Kinetic energy of molecules of a gas at a temperature T is 3/2 kT 3 kT  7.7  10 14 J  T = 3.7  109 K. 2  To initiate the reaction Example: 14 A nucleus with mass number 220 initially at rest emits an -particle. If the Q value of the reaction is 5.5 MeV. Calculate the kinetic energy of the -particle (a) 4.4 MeV (b) 5.4 MeV Solution : (b) (c) 5.6 MeV k1 k2 p1 p2 m2 = 4 m1 = 216 E3 M = 220 (d) 6.5 MeV 60 Solution : (a) Q-value of the reaction is 5.5 eV i.e. k 1  k 2  5.5 MeV By conservation of linear momentum p 1  p 2  2(216 )k 1  ……(i) 2(4 )k 2  k2 = 54 k1 ……(ii) Let m p be the mass of a proton, m n the mass of a neutron, M1 the mass of a the mass of a 40 20 Ca (a) M 2  2M1 nucleus. Then (b) M 2  2M1 (c) M 2  2M1 20 10 Ne nucleus and M 2 (d) M 1  10 (m n  m p ) U Example: 15 ID On solving equation (i) and (ii) we get k2 = 5.4 MeV. Solution : (c, d) Due to mass defect (which is finally responsible for the binding energy of the nucleus), D YG mass of a nucleus is always less then the sum of masses of it's constituent particles made up of 10 protons plus 10 neutrons. Therefore, mass of 20 10 20 10 Ne is Ne nucleus M 1  10 (m p  m n ) Also heavier the nucleus, more is he mass defect thus 20 (m n  m p )  M 2  10 (m p  m n )  M1 or  10 (m p  m n )  M 2  M 1 M 2  M1  10 (m p  m n )  M 2  M 1  M 1  M 2  2M 1 U Tricky example: 1 Binding energy per nucleon vs mass number curve for nuclei is shown in the figure. (a) Y 2Z (b) W X + Z (c) W 2Y Binding energy nucleon in MeV ST W, X, Y and Z are four nuclei indicated on the curve. The process that would release Y energy is [IIT-JEE 8.5 X1999] 8.0 7.5 5.0 W Z 30 60 90 120 Mass number of nuclei (d) X Y + Z Solution : (c) Energy is released in a process when total binding energy of the nucleus (= binding energy per nucleon  number of nucleon) is increased or we can say, when total binding energy of products is more than the reactants. By calculation we can see that only in case of option (c) this happens. Given W 2Y Nuclear Physics & Radioactivity 99 Binding energy of reactants = 120  7.5 = 900 MeV and binding energy of products = 2 (60  8.5) = 1020 MeV > 900 MeV Radioactivity. 60 The phenomenon of spontaneous emission of radiatons by heavy elements is called radioactivity. The elements which shows this phenomenon are called radioactive elements. (1) Radioactivity was discovered by Henery Becquerel in uranium salt in the year 1896. E3 (2) After the discovery of radioactivity in uranium, Piere Curie and Madame Curie discovered a new radioactive element called radium (which is 10 6 times more radioactive than uranium) ID (3) Some examples of radio active substances are : Uranium, Radium, Thorium, Polonium, Neptunium etc. (4) Radioactivity of a sample cannot be controlled by any physical (pressure, temperature, electric or magnetic field) or chemical changes. U (5) All the elements with atomic number (Z ) > 82 are naturally radioactive. D YG (6) The conversion of lighter elements into radioactive elements by the bombardment of fast moving particles is called artificial or induced radioactivity. (7) Radioactivity is a nuclear event and not atomic. Hence electronic configuration of atom don't have any relationship with radioactivity. Nuclear radiatons According to Rutherford's experiment when a sample of radioactive substance is put in a lead box and allow the emission of radiation through a small hole only. When the radiation U enters into the external electric field, they splits into three parts  -rays  -rays ST – – – – –  -rays   -rays          + + + + +   -rays   Magnetic  field  -rays      (i) Radiations which deflects towards negative plate are called -rays (stream of positively charged particles) (ii) Radiations which deflects towards positive plate are called  particles (stream of negatively charged particles) 100 Nuclear Physics & Radioactivity (iii) Radiations which are undeflected called -rays. (E.M. waves or photons) Note :  Exactly same results were obtained when these radiations were subjected to magnetic field. 60  No radioactive substance emits both  and  particles simultaneously. Also -rays are emitted after the emission of  or -particles.  -particles are not orbital electrons they come from nucleus. The neutron in the E3 nucleus decays into proton and an electron. This electron is emitted out of the nucleus in the form of -rays. Properties of ,  and -rays Fast 2. Charge + 2e –e Zero 3. Mass 4 mp (mp = mass of proton = 1.87  10–27 4 mp me Massless  107 m/s 1% to 99% of speed of light Speed of light 4 MeV to 9 MeV All possible values between a minimum certain value to 1.2 MeV Between a minimum value to 2.23 MeV 1 100 10,000 (100 times of ) (100 times of  upto 30 cm of iron (or Pb) 4. Speed 5. Range energy of kinetic 6. Penetration power (, U , ) moving electron  - rays Helium nucleus or doubly ionised helium atom (2He4) (Stopped paper) by a Photons (E.M. waves) – ( or  ) 0 U D YG 1. Identity  - particles ID - particles Features sheet 10,000 100 1 8. Effect of electric or magnetic field Deflected Deflected Not deflected 9. Energy spectrum Line and discrete Continuous Line and discrete 10. Produces heat Produces heat Produces, ST 7. Ionisation power ( >  > ) Mutual interaction with matter 11. Equation of decay photo- electric effect, Compton effect, pair production Z  decay X A   Z X A Z 1 Y A  1 e 0  z X A zXa  Nuclear Physics & Radioactivity 101 Z 2 Y A 4  2 He 4  X A  Z' Y n  nα   X A   Z' X A  n β  (2 n α  Z  Z') A' A'  A 4 60 Z n Z Radioactive Disintegration. (1) Law of radioactive disintegration E3 According to Rutherford and Soddy law for radioactive decay is as follows. "At any instant the rate of decay of radioactive atoms is proportional to the number of dN dN atoms present at that instant" i.e.    N. It can be proved that N = N0e– t N dt dt ID This equation can also be written in terms of mass i.e. M = M0e–t U where N = Number of atoms remains undecayed after time t, N0 = Number of atoms present initially (i.e. at t = 0), M = Mass of radioactive nuclei at time t, M0 = Mass of radioactive nuclei at time t = 0, N0 – N = Number of disintegrated nucleus in time t Note :   D YG dN = rate of decay,  = Decay constant or disintegration constant or radioactivity constant dt or Rutherford Soddy's constant or the probability of decay per unit time of a nucleus. depends only on the nature of substance. It is independent of time and any N0 physical or chemical changes. N = N0e– t N t U 0 (2) Activity ST It is defined as the rate of disintegration (or count rate) of the substance (or the number of dN atoms of any material decaying per second) i.e. A    N  N 0 e t  A0 e t dt where A0 = Activity of t = 0, A = Activity after time t Units of activity (Radioactivity) It's units are Becqueral (Bq), Curie (Ci) and Rutherford (Rd) 1 Becquerel = 1 disintegration/sec, 1 Rutherford = 106 dis/sec, 1 Curie = 3.7  1011 dis/sec Note :  Activity per gm of a substance is known as specific activity. The specific activity of 1 gm of radium – 226 is 1 Curie. 102 Nuclear Physics & Radioactivity  1 millicurie = 37 Rutherford  The activity of a radioactive substance decreases as the number of undecayed nuclei decreases with time. 1 Half life 60  Activity  (3) Half life (T1/2) Time interval in which the mass of a radioactive substance or the number of it's atom if N  i.e. E3 reduces to half of it's initial value is called the half life of the substance. N N0 then t  T1 / 2 2 N0 Half life = T Hence from N  N 0 e t N0/2 ID N0/4 N0/8 Time (t) Number of undecayed atoms (N) t = T1/2 t = 2(T1/2) 1 Remaining fraction of active atoms (N/N0) probability of survival 2T 3T t Fraction of atoms decayed (N0 – N) /N0 probability of decay N0 1 (100%) 0 N0 2 1 2 (50%) 1 2 (50%) N 1 N0   02 2 2 (2) 1 4 (25%) 3 4 (75%) N 1 N0   0 2 (2) (2) 3 1 8 (12.5%) 7 8 (87.5%) U t = 3(T1/2) D YG (N0 = Number of initial atoms) t=0 0 U log e 2 0.693 N0  (T )   N 0 e 1 / 2  T1 / 2  2   t = 10 (T1/2) N0 10 ST (2 ) t = n (N1/2) N (2) 2 1   2 10 1   2 n  99.9 %  0.1 %   1  n  1       2   Useful relation n 1 1 After n half-lives, number of undecayed atoms N  N 0    N 0   2 2 t / T1 / 2 (4) Mean (or average) life () The time for which a radioactive material remains active is defined as mean (average) life of that material. Other definitions Nuclear Physics & Radioactivity 103 (i) It is defined as the sum of lives of all atoms divided by the total number of atoms Sum of the lives of all the atoms 1  Total number of atoms  ln (ii) From N  N 0 e t  N N0   slope of the line shown in the graph t i.e. the magnitude of inverse of slope of ln 60 i.e.   N vs t curve is known as mean life (). N0 (iii) From N  N 0 e t N N0 E3 If t  ln Slope = –  1    N  N 0 e 1  N 0    0.37 N 0  37 % of N0.  e  1 t ID i.e. mean life is the time interval in which number of undecayed atoms (N) becomes times or 0.37 times or 37% of original number of atoms. 1 e or 0.693   1    1. (t1 / 2 )  1.44 (T1 / 2 ) 0.693 D YG (iv) From T1 / 2  U 1  It is the time in which number of decayed atoms (N0 – N) becomes 1   times or 0.63 e  times or 63% of original number of atoms. i.e. mean life is about 44% more than that of half life. Which gives us  > T(1/2) Note :  Half life and mean life of a substance doesn't change with time or with pressure, temperature etc. Radioactive Series. If the isotope that results from a radioactive decay is itself radioactive then it will also decay and so on. U The sequence of decays is known as radioactive decay series. Most of the radio-nuclides found in nature are members of four radioactive series. These are as follows Series (Nature) ST Mass number 4n 4n + 1 4n + 2 4n + 3 Parent Thorium (natural) 90 Th Neptunium (Artificial) 93 Uranium (Natural) Actinium (Natural) Integer n Number particles Pb 208 52  = 6,  = 4 83 Bi 209 52  = 8,  = 5 82 Pb 206 51  = 8,  = 6 82 Pb 207 51  = 7,  = 4 238 Ac 227 and 82 232 Np 237 92 U 89 Stable product of lost 104 Nuclear Physics & Radioactivity Note :  The 4n + 1 series starts from 94 PU 241 but commonly known as neptunium series because neptunium is the longest lived member of the series.  The 4n + 3 series actually starts from 92 U 235. Successive Disintegration and Radioactive Equilibrium. 60 Suppose a radioactive element A disintegrates to form another radioactive element B which intern disintegrates to still another element C; such decays are called successive disintegration. 1 2 A B E3 C dN 1  1 N 1 (which is also the rate of formation of B) dt dN 2 Rate of disintegration of B    2 N 2 dt  Net rate of formation of B = Rate of disintegration of A – Rate of disintegration of B = 1N1 – 2N2 Equilibrium In radioactive equilibrium, the rate of decay of any radioactive product is just equal to it's rate of production from the previous member. (T ) 1 N 2  2    1/2 i.e. 1N1 = 2N2   2 N 2  1 (T1 / 2 )1 D YG U ID Rate of disintegration of A  Note :  In successive disintegration if N0 is the initial number of nuclei of A at t = 0 then number of nuclei of product B at time t is given by N 2  1 N 0 (e 1t  e 2 t ) where ( 2  1 ) 12 – decay constant of A and B. Uses of radioactive isotopes (1) In medicine 24 U (i) For testing blood-chromium - 51 (ii) For testing blood circulation - Na - ST (iii) For detecting brain tumor- Radio mercury - 203 (iv) For detecting fault in thyroid gland - Radio iodine - 131 (v) For cancer - cobalt - 60 (vi) For blood - Gold - 189 (vii) For skin diseases - Phospohorous - 31 (2) In Archaeology (i) For determining age of archaeological sample (carbon dating) C 14 (ii) For determining age of meteorites - K 40 (iii) For determining age of earth-Lead isotopes (3) In agriculture Nuclear Physics & Radioactivity 105 (i) For protecting potato crop from earthworm- CO 60 (iii) As fertilizers - P 32 (ii) For artificial rains - AgI (4) As tracers - (Tracer) : Very small quantity of radioisotopes present in a mixture is known as tracer (5) In industries Concept For determining the age of If a nuclide can decay simultaneously by two different process which have decay constant 1 and 2, half life T1 and T2 and mean lives 1 and 2 respectively then 1  T  Example: 16 U When 90 Th 228 transforms to  T T1T2 T1  T2    1 2 1   2 2, T2, 2 D YG Example s 2   = 1 + 2 1, T1, 1 ID  (ii) E3 (i) For detecting leakage in oil or water pipe lines planets. 60 (i) Tracer technique is used for studying biochemical reaction in tracer and animals. 212 83 Bi , then the number of the emitted –and –particles is, respectively (a) 8, 7 Solution : (d) Z 90 Th A  228 [MP PET 2002] (b) 4, 7 (c) 4, 4 (d) 4, 1 Z ' 83 BiA'  212 U Number of -particles emitted n  A  A' 228  212  4 4 4 Number of -particles emitted n   2n  Z  Z'  2  4  90  83  1. A radioactive substance decays to 1/16th of its initial activity in 40 days. The half-life of the radioactive substance expressed in days is ST Example: 17 (a) 2.5 Solution : (c) Example: 18 1 By using N  N 0   2  (c) 10 N 1 1    N 0 16  2  40 / T1 / 2 (d) 20  T1 / 2  10 days. A sample of radioactive element has a mass of 10 gm at an instant t = 0. The approximate mass of this element in the sample after two mean lives is (a) 2.50 gm Solution : (d) (b) 5 t / T1 / 2 (b) 3.70 gm By using M  M0 e t  M 2      (2 )  10 e  10 e    (c) 6.30 gm 2 1  10    1.359 gm e  (d) 1.35 gm 106 Nuclear Physics & Radioactivity The half-life of 215 At is 100 s. The time taken for the radioactivity of a sample of decay to 1/16th of its initial value is (a) 400 s Example: 20 1 By using N  N 0   2    1 1620 activity 1 1   16  2  (b) 1620 year per year and    (c) 449 year A 1  A0 4 1  1 1 1   per year 1620 405 324 log e A0 1 2  t  log e 4  log e 2 = 324  2  0.693 = 449 years. A   U At any instant the ratio of the amount of radioactive substances is 2 : 1. If their half lives be respectively 12 and 16 hours, then after two days, what will be the ratio of the substances [RPMT 1996] (a) 1 : 1 (b) 2 : 1 (c) 1 : 2 (d) 1 : 4 D YG Example: 22 1 By using N  N 0   2 n U ST 1 By using A  A 0   2  Example: 23  N1 ( N 0 )1 (1 / 2)n1   N 2 ( N 0 )2 (1 / 2)n 2 2 24  1  12   2 2 1    2  24 1 1  1  16   2 From a newly formed radioactive substance (Half-life 2 hours), the intensity of radiation is 64 times the permissible safe level. The minimum time after which work can be done safely from this source is (a) 6 hours Solution : (b) (d) None of these ID We know that A  A0 e t  t  Solution : (a)  t = 400  sec. 1 per year and it is given that the fraction of the remained 405 Total decay constant        Example: 21  (d) 300 s t / 100 The mean lives of a radioactive substance for  and  emissions are 1620 years and 405 years respectively. After how much time will the activity be reduced to one fourth (a) 405 year Solution : (c) N 1   N0  2  (c) 40 s t / T1 / 2 At to 60 Solution : (a) (b) 6.3 s n 215 E3 Example: 19 t T1 / 2 6 [IIT 1983; SCRA 1996] (b) 12 hours (c) 24 hours 0 n  A 1 1 1      A0 64  2  2 (d) 128 hours n n=6  t  6  2  12 hours. nucleus of mass number A, originally at rest, emits an -particle with speed v. The daughter nucleus recoils with a speed (a) 2v /(A  4 ) (b) 4v /(A  4) Solution : (c) (c) 4v /(A  4) m A v A–4 m + (d) 2v /(A  4 ) v 4 Rest According to conservation of momentum 4v  (A  4)v'  v'  4v. A4 Nuclear Physics & Radioactivity 107 Example: 24 The counting rate observed from a radioactive source at t = 0 second was 1600 counts per second and at t = 8 seconds it was 100 counts per second. The counting rate observed as counts per second at t = 6 seconds will be (a) 400 (b) 300 (c) 200 (d) 150 n 8 / T1 / 2 8 / T1 / 2 Solution : (c) 1 1 By using A  A0    100  1600   2 2 Example: 25 1  200. Again by using the same relation the count rate at t = 6 sec will be A  1600   2 The kinetic energy of a neutron beam is 0.0837 eV. The half-life of neutrons is 693s and the mass of neutrons is 1.675  10 27 kg. The fraction of decay in travelling a distance of 40m will be 1 1   16  2   T1 / 2  2 sec 60  (a) 10 3 Solution : (c) v 2E  m E3 6/2 2  0. 0837  1.6  10 19 1. 675  10  27 = 4  103 m/sec t'  ID  Time taken by neutrons to travel a distance of 40 m  (d) 10 6 (c) 10 5 (b) 10 4 dN dN N    dt dt N 40 4  10 3  10  2 sec U N 0.693 0.693   t  t   10  2  10 5 N T 693 The fraction of atoms of radioactive element that decays in 6 days is 7/8. The fraction that decays in 10 days will be (a) 77/80 (b) 71/80 (c) 31/32 (d) 15/16 N    N0   log e 0  T1 / 2 log e   t / T1 / 2 N 1 N t 1   N  By using N  N 0    t  t  log e 0  1  log e (2) t2 N  N  2  log e 0  N 2  Example: 26 Solution : (c) D YG  Fraction of neutrons decayed in t sec in log e (8 / 1) N N 6 10   log e 0  log e (8 )  log e 32  0  32. 10 log e ( N 0 / N ) N N 6 U Hence ST So fraction that decays  1  1 31.  32 32 Half-life of a substance is 20 minutes. What is the time between 33% decay and 67% decay [AIIMS 2000] (a) 40 minutes (b) 20 minutes (c) 30 minutes (d) 25 minutes Solution : (b) Let N0 be the number of nuclei at beginning  Number of undecayed nuclei after 33% decay = 0.67 N0 and number of undecayed nuclei after 67% of decay = 0.33 N0 0.67 N 0  0.33 N0 ~ and in the half-life time the number of undecayed nuclei 2 becomes half.