Industrial Chemical Processes (BOTP 115) PDF

Department of Chemical Engineering Jubail Industrial College Industrial Chemical Processes - (BOTP 115) Instructor Details ❑ Name: Abdulrahman Ali Al Malawi ❑ Email: [email protected] ❑ Office location: AD-311 (SECOND FLOOR) Classroom Policies ❑ All cl...

Department of Chemical Engineering Jubail Industrial College Industrial Chemical Processes - (BOTP 115) Instructor Details ❑ Name: Abdulrahman Ali Al Malawi ❑ Email: [email protected] ❑ Office location: AD-311 (SECOND FLOOR) Classroom Policies ❑ All classes will be conducted in the classroom during the allocated class time. ❑ Attendance is important. Absence will be recorded in the Edugate system. ❑ Please make sure you attend the period allocated to your section. Attending another section will not count as present for you. 3 Prepared by: Abdulrahman Ali Al Malawi Classroom Policies (cont.) ❑ FOOD or HOT DRINKS are not allowed in the classroom. ❑ Feel free to ask questions or seek clarifications. 4 Prepared by: Abdulrahman Ali Al Malawi Classroom Policies (cont.) Be respectful of everyone in the class session and please avoid circumstances that will cause distraction to the smooth conduct of the lecture sessions. 5 Prepared by: Abdulrahman Ali Al Malawi Course Contents Chapter 1: Olefins. Chapter 2: Polymers. Chapter 3: Ethylene Glycol (EG). Chapter 4: Methyl tert-butyl Ether (MTBE). Chapter 5: Crackers. 6 Prepared by: Abdulrahman Ali Al Malawi Assessments and Attendance 2 quizzes (25 marks each) Final exam (50 marks) First quiz will be conducted on week 3 (7-11/7/2024) Second quiz will be conducted on week 6 (28/7-1/8 /2024) Final exam will be conducted on week 9 (18-22/8/2024) (Tentative) Attendance is Mandatory and will be taken each class. 7 Prepared by: Abdulrahman Ali Al Malawi CHAPTER 1 – OLEFINS ❑Introduction: Hydrocarbon is an organic chemical compound which is mainly composed of Carbon and Hydrogen. Hydrocarbons are colorless and hydrophobic in nature. Hydrocarbons are naturally-occurring compounds under earth’s crust region, hydrocarbons originate from plant and animal fossils that have been formed by the forces of high temperature and pressure over millennia by decay of the microorganisms & anaerobic decomposition, these hydrocarbons called as fossil fuels and these are non-renewable. Crude oil, natural gas, and natural-gas liquids are all "petroleum" which is the general term for hydrocarbon compounds found in the earth's crust that are composed mainly of hydrogen and carbon atoms. 8 Prepared by: Abdulrahman Ali Al Malawi CHAPTER 1 – OLEFINS ❑Classification of Hydrocarbons Depending on the carbon chain and the bonds between the carbon atoms, hydrocarbons can be classified as follows: 9 Prepared by: Abdulrahman Ali Al Malawi  CHAPTER 1 – OLEFINS Saturated Hydrocarbons (Alkanes) Alkanes, also known as paraffin’s, are saturated hydrocarbons have only single bonds between the atoms. They have the general formula of CnH2n+2 10 Prepared by: Abdulrahman Ali Al Malawi CHAPTER 1 – OLEFINS Unsaturated Hydrocarbons The unsaturated hydrocarbons contain multiple bonds; carbon makes double or triple bonds with other carbon atoms. The unsaturated hydrocarbons are of two types: 1) alkene or olefins (containing double bonds). 2) alkynes (containing triple bonds). 11 Prepared by: Abdulrahman Ali Al Malawi CHAPTER 1 – OLEFINS Alkenes or Olefins Alkenes contains a carbon-carbon double bond. Because an alkene must have a double bond between carbon atoms, there is no 1-carbon alkene. The simplest alkene is Ethene that has two carbon atoms double bonded to each other. The general formula of alkenes is CnH2n. Alkenes are named in much the same way as alkanes. Their names are formed by changing the -ane ending of the corresponding alkane to -ene. An alkane with two carbons is named ethane, and an alkene with two carbons is named ethene. Likewise, a three-carbon alkene is named propene. 12 Prepared by: Abdulrahman Ali Al Malawi CHAPTER 1 – OLEFINS Ethene and propene have older, more common names: ethylene and propylene, respectively. 13 Prepared by: Abdulrahman Ali Al Malawi  CHAPTER 1 – OLEFINS Alkynes Unsaturated hydrocarbons that contain one or more triple bonds between carbon atoms in a chain are called alkynes. Triple bonds involve the sharing of three pairs of electrons. The simplest and most commonly used alkyne is ethyne (C2H2), which is widely known by its common name acetylene. Straight-chain alkynes and branched-chain alkynes are named in the same way as alkenes. The only difference is that the name of the parent chain ends in -yne rather than –ene. Alkynes has the general formula CnH2n-2 14 Prepared by: Abdulrahman Ali Al Malawi CHAPTER 1 – OLEFINS 15 Prepared by: Abdulrahman Ali Al Malawi  CHAPTER 1 – OLEFINS OLEFINS Alkenes names as olefins because lower gaseous members form oily products when treated with chlorine. Ethylene, propylene, butylene, etc are unsaturated hydrocarbon containing at least one double or olefinic chemical bond having different types of geometric structure and structural isomerism. The common molecular formula of alkenes or olefins is CnH2n, where n = 1, 2, 3, etc. The double bond is called the olefinic bond or ethylenic bond. For example, some common alkenes or olefins molecules are ethylene (CH2=CH2), propylene (CH3-CH=CH2), butylene (CH3-CH2-CH=CH2), etc. 16 Prepared by: Abdulrahman Ali Al Malawi  CHAPTER 1 – OLEFINS Linear alpha olefins (LAO) or Normal alpha olefins (NAO) are unsaturated compounds with a formula of CnH2n, distinguished from other mono-olefins with a similar molecular formula by linearity of the hydrocarbon chain and the position of the double bond at the primary or alpha position. Olefin species are not commonly found in the crude oil. Olefin production is a petrochemical process in which saturated hydrocarbons are broken down into smaller, often unsaturated ones. It is the principal industrial method for producing the lighter alkenes commonly known as olefins, including ethene or ethylene, propene or propylene and butadiene. 17 Prepared by: Abdulrahman Ali Al Malawi  CHAPTER 1 – OLEFINS ❖Physical Properties of Olefins Alkenes with two to four carbon atoms are gases, those containing five to fifteen are liquids, and higher alkenes are solids. They are insoluble in water but soluble in organic solvents. Physical state Ethene, Propene, and Butene exists as colorless gases. Members of the 5 or more carbons such as Pentene, Hexene, and Heptene are liquid, and members of the 15 carbons or more are solids. 18 Prepared by: Abdulrahman Ali Al Malawi  CHAPTER 1 – OLEFINS Density Alkenes are lighter than water and are insoluble in water due to their non-polar characteristics. Alkenes are only soluble in nonpolar solvents. Solubility Alkenes are virtually insoluble in water, but dissolve in organic solvents. The reasons for this are exactly the same as for the alkanes. Boiling Point The boiling point of each alkene is very similar to that of the alkanes with the same number of carbon atoms. Ethene, propene and the various butenes are gases at room temperature. All the rest that you are likely to come across are liquids. Boiling points of alkenes depends on more molecular mass (chain length). The more intermolecular mass is added, the higher the boiling point. 19 Prepared by: Abdulrahman Ali Al Malawi  CHAPTER 1 – OLEFINS Sources of Olefins Crude oil contains all hydrocarbons like paraffins, naphthenes and aromatics in different proportions except olefins. Olefins are hydrocarbons which are produced during processing in the refinery. The olefins are not found in crude oil, but are manufactured from oil, natural gas, or NGL's by one of several cracking processes. SC: Steam Cracking, F–T: Fischer–Tropsch Met: Metathesis MTO: Methanol To Olefins, PDH: Propane Dehydrogenation BDH: Butene Dehydrogenation, (HS) FCC: High Severity Fluid Catalytic Cracking 20 Prepared by: Abdulrahman Ali Al Malawi  CHAPTER 1 – OLEFINS Natural gas and crude oil are primary feedstocks, and continue to be, the main sources of secondary feedstocks for the production of petrochemicals. For example, methane from natural gas as well as other low-boiling (low molecular weight) hydrocarbon derivatives is recovered for use as feedstocks for the production of olefin derivatives and diolefin derivatives. In addition, the gaseous constituents from crude oil (associated natural gas) as well as refinery gases from different crude oil processing schemes—such as cracking and reforming processes are important sources for olefin derivatives 21 Prepared by: Abdulrahman Ali Al Malawi  CHAPTER 1 – OLEFINS Light olefins are industrially produced by pyrolysis and fluid catalytic cracking of the vacuum distillates. Another potential technique for the light olefins production is direct conversion of syngas. Olefins (ethylene, propylene and butadiene) as raw materials play an important role in a lot of chemical and polymer products. In industrial scale, there are several techniques from crude oil, natural gas, coal and methanol for the olefins production. 22 Prepared by: Abdulrahman Ali Al Malawi CHAPTER 1 – OLEFINS 23 Prepared by: Abdulrahman Ali Al Malawi  CHAPTER 1 – OLEFINS Different technologies have been used for the production of light olefins using different feedstocks, such as crude oil, natural gas, coal, and biomass. Natural gas used as a feedstock can go through various processes: 1) Separation process to produce methane, ethane, and propane. 2) Oxidative coupling of methane (OCM) via ethane. 3) Methanol production via steam reforming of natural gas. The products of these processes can then go through further reactions to produce olefins as final products. Olefins are produced through different technologies, whereas steam cracking (SC) and fluid catalytic cracking (FCC) are the main technologies for the production of light olefins. 24 Prepared by: Abdulrahman Ali Al Malawi  CHAPTER 1 – OLEFINS The petrochemical industry is concerned with the production and trade of petrochemical products whether it involves the manufacture of an intermediate product or the manufacture of a final (sales) product. The industry directly interfaces with the petroleum industry, especially the downstream sector. A petroleum refinery produces olefin derivatives and aromatic derivatives by cracking processes such as coking processes and fluid catalytic cracking processes. In addition, the stream cracking of natural gas (methane) also produces olefin derivatives. The importance of olefin derivatives and aromatic derivatives is reflected in their use as the building blocks for a wide range of materials such as solvent, detergents, adhesives, plastics, fibers, and elastomers. 25 Prepared by: Abdulrahman Ali Al Malawi  CHAPTER 1 – OLEFINS ❑Uses of Olefins Ethylene and propylene are known as important sources of various industrial chemicals and plastics products. Butadiene is widely used in synthetic rubber production. Olefins have various applications in various industries. Linear α-Olefins (LAO) are used in several applications in chemical industry. Especially, 1-Butene and 1-Hexene are highly valuable co-monomers for polyolefins. Higher LAOs are processed within the production of Poly-Linear-Alpha-Olefins (PAOs), detergent alcohols and lubricants. 26 Prepared by: Abdulrahman Ali Al Malawi  CHAPTER 1 – OLEFINS Ethylene goes into the manufacture of polyethylene, one of the most familiar plastics. Propylene is also an important industrial chemical. It is converted to plastics, isopropyl alcohol, and a variety of other products. Alkenes occur widely in nature. Ripening fruits and vegetables give off ethylene, which triggers further ripening. Fruit processors artificially introduce ethylene to hasten the ripening process. 27 Prepared by: Abdulrahman Ali Al Malawi  CHAPTER 1 – OLEFINS ❑Olefins Production Olefin derivatives (CnH2n, such as ethylene CH2=CH2) are the basic building blocks for a host of chemical products. The most important olefin derivatives used for the production of petrochemicals are ethylene propylene, the butylene isomers and isoprene. Ethylene manufacture is achieved using a variety of processes of which the steam cracking process is in widespread practice throughout the world. The operating facilities are similar to gas oil cracking units, operating at temperatures of 840°C (1550°F) and at low pressures (24 psi). Steam is added to the vaporized feed to achieve a 50–50 mixture, and furnace residence times are only 0.2–0.5 seconds. Ethane extracted from natural gas is the predominant feedstock for ethylene cracking units. 28 Prepared by: Abdulrahman Ali Al Malawi  CHAPTER 1 – OLEFINS Propylene and butylene are largely derived from catalytic cracking units and from cracking a naphtha or low-boiling gas oil fraction to produce a full range of olefin products. 29 Prepared by: Abdulrahman Ali Al Malawi  CHAPTER 1 – OLEFINS The main route for producing light olefins, especially ethylene, is the steam cracking of hydrocarbons. The feedstocks for steam cracking units range from light paraffinic hydrocarbon gases to various petroleum fractions and residues. 30 Prepared by: Abdulrahman Ali Al Malawi  CHAPTER 1 – OLEFINS Steam Cracking (SC) Steam cracking is a conventional, well-known process for olefin production, and using SC technology about 40% of the hydrocarbons are converted into olefins. It has been reported that conventional methods, such as the steam cracking of oil and ethane, are the most energy-efficient processes for producing high-value chemicals (HVCs). The simplest paraffin (alkane) and the most widely used feedstock for producing ethylene is ethane. 31 Prepared by: Abdulrahman Ali Al Malawi  CHAPTER 1 – OLEFINS The cracking reactions are principally bond breaking, and a substantial amount of energy is needed to drive the reaction toward olefin production. Cracking ethane can be visualized as a free radical dehydrogenation reaction, where hydrogen is a coproduct. 𝑪𝟐𝑯𝟔 → 𝑪𝑯𝟐 = 𝑪𝑯𝟐 + 𝑯𝟐 The reaction is highly endothermic, so it is favored at higher temperatures and lower pressures. Superheated steam is used to reduce the partial pressure of the reacting hydrocarbons' (in this reaction, ethane). Superheated steam also reduces carbon deposits that are formed by the pyrolysis of hydrocarbons at high temperatures. For example, pyrolysis of ethane produces carbon and hydrogen. 32 Prepared by: Abdulrahman Ali Al Malawi CHAPTER 1 – OLEFINS Steam Cracking feedstocks are usually gas based or liquid based. In the steam cracking process, saturated hydrocarbons break into smaller unsaturated hydrocarbons through a reaction with steam. The feed for the steam cracking unit can be gaseous like ethane, propane, butane, or liquid hydrocarbons like naphtha, and gas oil. Butadiene, butylene, aromatics, and benzene-rich pyrolysis gasoline are produced when heavy liquid feeds such as naphtha and gas oils are used as feedstock, whereas methane, ethylene, propylene, and benzene can be produced from any optional feedstocks. 33 Prepared by: Abdulrahman Ali Al Malawi  CHAPTER 1 – OLEFINS Process Description A typical ethane cracker has several identical pyrolysis furnaces in which fresh ethane feed and recycled ethane are cracked with steam as a diluent. Steam also helps to reduce the formation of coke. The outlet temperature is usually in the 800 0C range. The furnace effluent is quenched in a heat exchanger and further cooled by direct contact in a water quench tower where steam is condensed and recycled to the pyrolysis furnace. After the cracked gas is treated to remove acid gases, hydrogen and methane are separated from the pyrolysis products in the demethanizer. The effluent is then treated to remove acetylene, and ethylene is separated from ethane and heavier in the ethylene fractionator. The bottom fraction is separated in the deethanizer into ethane and C3+ fraction. Ethane is then recycled to the pyrolysis furnace. 34 Prepared by: Abdulrahman Ali Al Malawi  CHAPTER 1 – OLEFINS The steam cracking of ethane and other feedstocks also involves three steps 1) Pyrolysis or Cracking (Hot Section) 2) Fractionation and compression 3) Recovery and separation. (Cold Section) 35 Prepared by: Abdulrahman Ali Al Malawi CHAPTER 1 – OLEFINS 36 Prepared by: Abdulrahman Ali Al Malawi  CHAPTER 1 – OLEFINS Primary fractionator or Stabiliser Cracked liquids and gases are separated in a fractionating column the bottom product of which is the heavy cracked oil rich in high boiling aromatics. This heavy oil is also partly used as the quenching medium for the products from the furnace and partly sold as the carbon black feedstock (CBFS) due to its heavy aromatic contents. Cracked gases containing hydrocarbons, both saturated and unsaturated, from methane to C7 hydrocarbons emerge from the top of the column, which is then compressed, and amine (or caustic) washed to remove hydrogen sulfide and carbon dioxide gases. 37 Prepared by: Abdulrahman Ali Al Malawi  CHAPTER 1 – OLEFINS Hydrogen separator Amine or caustic washed gases are then passed through a flash separator vessel, where liquid hydrocarbon gases are separated from hydrogen at high pressure and low temperature. Hydrogen from this vessel is used in the hydrogenating units. Demethaniser Liquified gases from a hydrogen separator are then separated from methane in a distillation column where methane (C1) emerges from the top and is used as a fuel for the cracking furnace. The bottom of the column is then passed to a de- ethaniser. De-ethaniser It is also a distillation column that separates ethane and ethylene mixture (C2 mixture) as the top product from the rest of the liquified gases containing propane, propylene, butane, butylenes, etc. Ethane-ethylene separator A C2 mixture from the top of the de-ethaniser column is then passed through another distillation column that separates ethylene as the top product and ethane as the bottom product. Ethylene is sent to storage and is used up in the polyethylene (PE) synthesis plant. Ethane from this column is recycled to a small cracking furnace to yield additional ethylene. 38 Prepared by: Abdulrahman Ali Al Malawi  CHAPTER 1 – OLEFINS Depropaniser The liquified gas mixture from the bottom of the de-ethaniser is separated from propane and propylene (C3 mixture), which leaves from the top of the column and enters the propane–propylene fractionator. The bottom product contains the butanes, butenes, butadiene, and heavier components, which are then separated from the butane–butene mixture (C4 mixture). Propane–propylene separator In this column, propylene is recovered as the top product and propane as the bottom product. Propylene is stored and used for manufacturing polypropylene, and propane is sold as a domestic fuel liquified petroleum gas (LPG). Debutaniser Butane, butenes, and butadiene (C4 mixture) are recovered as the top product and components heavier than the C4 mixture, i.e., C5 and heavier, are recovered as the pyrolysis gasoline (bottom product). ❑ There are five major licensors of ethylene plants: KBR; Technip; Linde; Shaw, Stone & Webster; and Lummus. 39 Prepared by: Abdulrahman Ali Al Malawi  CHAPTER 1 – OLEFINS Process Variables The important process variables are reactor temperature, residence time, and steam/hydrocarbon ratio. Feed characteristics are also considered, since they influence the process severity. 1) Temperature Steam cracking reactions are highly endothermic. Increasing temperature favors the formation of olefins, high molecular weight olefins and aromatics. Optimum temperatures are usually selected to maximize olefin production and minimize formation of carbon deposits. 1) Residence Time In steam cracking processes, olefins are formed as primary reaction products. Aromatics and higher hydrocarbon compounds result from secondary reactions of the formed olefins. Accordingly, short residence times are required for high olefin yield. When ethane and light hydrocarbon gases are used as feeds, shorter residence times are used to maximize olefin production and minimize BTX and liquid yields. Residence times of 0.5—1.2 sec are typical. Cracking liquid feedstocks for the dual purpose of producing olefins plus BTX aromatics requires relatively longer residence times than for ethane. However, residence time is a compromise between the reaction temperature and other variables. 40 Prepared by: Abdulrahman Ali Al Malawi  CHAPTER 1 – OLEFINS 3) Steam/Hydrocarbon Ratio A higher steam/hydrocarbon ratio favors olefin formation. Steam reduces the partial pressure of the hydrocarbon mixture and increases the yield of olefins. Heavier hydrocarbon feeds require more steam than gaseous feeds to additionally reduce coke deposition in the furnace tubes. Liquid feeds such as gas oils and petroleum residues have complex polynuclear aromatic compounds, which are coke precursors. Steam to hydrocarbon weight ratios range between 0.2—1 for ethane and approximately 1—1.2 for liquid feeds. 4) Feedstocks Feeds to steam cracking units vary appreciably, from light hydrocarbon gases to petroleum residues. Due to the difference in the cracking rates of the various hydrocarbons, the reactor temperature and residence time vary. As mentioned before, long chain hydrocarbons crack more easily than shorter chain compounds and require lower cracking temperatures. For example, it was found that the temperature and residence time that gave 60% conversion for ethane yielded 90% conversion for propane. Feedstock composition also determines operation parameters. The rates of cracking hydrocarbons differ according to structure of hydrocarbons. Paraffinic hydrocarbons are easier to crack than cycloparaffins and aromatics tend to pass through unaffected. Isoparaffins such as isobutane and isopentane give high yields of propylene. This is expected because cracking at a tertiary carbon is easier. 41 Prepared by: Abdulrahman Ali Al Malawi  CHAPTER 1 – OLEFINS Catalytic Cracking Catalytic cracking is defined as a cracking process that operates at quite moderate temperature in the presence of an acidic catalyst. It is a remarkably versatile and flexible process with principal aim to crack lower-value stocks and produce higher-value lighter liquids and distillates. Also, light hydrocarbon gases, which are important feedstocks for the petrochemical industry, can be produced by this process. The products of catalytic cracking are basically the same as those of thermal cracking besides the use of a catalyst to improve process efficiency. A wide range of solid acidic catalysts are employed but zeolites are the most performing ones. Fluid Catalytic Cracking (FCC), hydrocracking, and Deep Catalytic Cracking (DCC) are the most common examples of catalytic cracking process. Fluid Catalytic Cracking (FCC) is the most widely used process which can be regarded as the main process for large-scale gasoline production with high octane number. ZSM-5 Zeolite catalyst is used to increase the yield of light olefins which are produced as secondary products. The reaction is endothermic. The reaction temperature ranges from 450 to 560 0C. In the FCC process, a fluidized bed is used in order to provide an instantaneous regeneration of zeolite. Deactivation of catalysts by the coke (i.e. non-volatile carbonaceous deposits) formation on the surface of the catalysts during the reactions is a serious problem. 42 Prepared by: Abdulrahman Ali Al Malawi CHAPTER 1 – OLEFINS 43 Prepared by: Abdulrahman Ali Al Malawi  CHAPTER 1 – OLEFINS Propane Dehydrogenation (PDH) Propane Dehydrogenation (PDH) is a petrochemical process in the production of propylene from propane which is the second most important starting product in the petrochemical industry after ethylene. A PDH is a catalytic technology utilized for the conversion of propane into propylene, and various catalysts have been developed to increase the propylene yield over recent decades. The reaction involved in Propane Dehydrogenation (PDH) process is: Propane dehydrogenation converts propane (CH3CH2CH3) into propylene (CH3CH=CH2) and byproduct hydrogen. The major industrial technologies for PDH are: 1) CATOFIN: Fixed-bed type by ABB Lummus technologies. 2) OLEFLEX: Moving-bed type of UOP-Honeywell. 3) STAR Krupp-Uhde 4) FBD Yarsintez–Snamprogetti 5) Linde/BASF 6) SABIC integrated FBR / Embedded Dehydrogenation FBR systems 7) K-PRO KBR 44 Prepared by: Abdulrahman Ali Al Malawi  CHAPTER 1 – OLEFINS Catofin Process The Catofin process comprises four stages: propane dehydrogenation to propylene (reaction stage), compression of the reactor discharge (compression stage), and recovery and refining of the product (recovery and refinement stages). The Catofin process employs a CrOx/Al2O3 catalyst (chromium based), which is cost-effective, and has high cycle times. The operating conditions are of 600 oC and 0.5 bar temperature and pressure respectively. The process takes in fixed- bed reactor system. Propane feed enters the dehydrogenation reactor. The product from reactor is cooled by a heat exchanger, then it flows to the compression train where it is compressed. Then the product mixture is sent to remove inert gases like hydrogen, nitrogen and other gases in low temperature recovery section, and after that the product mixture sent to purification system, which contains two distillation columns, one is de ethanizer and the product splitter. The demethanizer used to separate the ethane from propane and propylene mixture. Then the product splitter column separates propylene and propane, propane is recycled back into PDH reaction section. The product propylene is then stored in refrigerated tanks, for further uses. 45 Prepared by: Abdulrahman Ali Al Malawi  CHAPTER 1 – OLEFINS Oleflex Process The Oleflex process is divided into three parts: 1) The reaction part (four radial-flow reactors). 2) The product separation part. 3) The catalyst regeneration part. The reaction section uses moving bed reactor. The Oleflex process employs the Platinum (Pt) catalyst to carry out the dehydrogenation of propane, and the resulting polymeric grade propylene is obtained by separation and distillation in the presence of the catalyst. This reaction does not require the use of hydrogen or water vapor as diluents, resulting in lower energy consumption and operational costs. The Oleflex process is more selective for propylene than the Catofin process, due to the cyclic regeneration of the catalyst. The Oleflex process is characterized by high operational safety, a small reaction volume, and easy operation, and a higher sulfur content limitation (not exceeding 100 ppm) compared to the Catofin process. 46 Prepared by: Abdulrahman Ali Al Malawi CHAPTER 1 – OLEFINS 47 Prepared by: Abdulrahman Ali Al Malawi