Chapter 16: Current Electricity PDF

V Current Electricity 1 A Electric Current. E3 60 (1) Definition : The time rate of flow of charge through any cross-section is called current. Q So if through a cross-section, Q charge passes in time t then iav  and instantaneous t ΔQ dQ Q  current i  Lim. If flow is uniform then i . Curren...

V Current Electricity 1 A Electric Current. E3 60 (1) Definition : The time rate of flow of charge through any cross-section is called current. Q So if through a cross-section, Q charge passes in time t then iav  and instantaneous t ΔQ dQ Q  current i  Lim. If flow is uniform then i . Current is a scalar quantity. It's S.I. unit Δt 0 Δt dt t is ampere (A) and C.G.S. unit is emu and is called biot (Bi), or ab ampere. 1A = (1/10) Bi (ab amp.) ID (2) The direction of current : The conventional direction of current is taken to be the direction of flow of positive charge, i.e. field and is opposite to the direction of flow of negative charge as shown below. i  E U  E i D YG Though conventionally a direction is associated with current (Opposite to the motion of electron), it is not a vector. It is because the current can be added algebraically. Only scalar quantities can be added algebraically not the vector quantities. (3) Charge on a current carrying conductor : In conductor the current is caused by electron (free electron). The no. of electron (negative charge) and proton (positive charge) in a conductor is same. Hence the net charge in a current carrying conductor is zero. U (4) Current through a conductor of non-uniform cross-section : For a given conductor current does not change with change in cross-sectional area. In the following figure i1 = i2 = i3 i1 i2 i3 ST (5) Types of current : Electric current is of two type : Alternating current (ac) (i) i + Magnitude and direction both varies with time – Direct current (dc) (i) (Pulsating dc) dc) i t Shows heating effect only i t ac Rectifier dc (ii) (Constant t dc Inverter ac (ii) Shows heating effect, chemical effect and magnetic effect of current 2 Current Electricity (iii) It’s symbol is (iii) It’s symbol is ~ + – Note : In our houses ac is supplied at 220V, 50Hz. (6) Current in difference situation : (i) Due to translatory motion of charge + 60 + + nq t In n particle each having a charge q, pass through a given area in time t then i  + + + If n particles each having a charge q pass per second per unit area, the current associated E3 with cross-sectional area A is i  nqA If there are n particle per unit volume each having a charge q and moving with velocity v, the current thorough, cross section A is i  nqvA ID (ii) Due to rotatory motion of charge If a point charge q is moving in a circle of radius r with speed v (frequency , angular q qv qω   T 2 πr 2π r q U speed  and time period T) then corresponding currents i  qν  (iii) When a voltage V applied across a resistance R : Current flows through the V P also by definition of power Ri  V R i D YG conductor i  (7) Current carriers : The charged particles whose flow in a definite direction constitutes the electric current are called current carriers. In different situation current carriers are different. (i) Solids : In solid conductors like metals current carriers are free electrons. U (ii) Liquids : In liquids current carriers are positive and negative ions. (iii) Gases : In gases current carriers are positive ions and free electrons. ST (iv) Semi conductor : In semi conductors current carriers are holes and free electrons. Current density (J). In case of flow of charge through a cross-section, current density is defined as a vector having magnitude equal to current per unit area surrounding that point. Remember area is normal to the direction of charge flow (or current passes) through that point. Current density at di point P is given by J  n dA ˆ dA dA i P J i  n dA cos   J Current Electricity 3 If the cross-sectional area is not normal to the current, the cross-sectional area normal to current in accordance with following figure will be dA cos and so in this situation: J di dA cos  i.e. di  JdA cos  or di  J.dA  i   J  dA  or i  J  A  JA cos 0  JA  J  i A A then : E3  60 i.e., in terms of current density, current is the flux of current density.  Note :  If current density J is uniform for a normal cross-section    i  J  ds  J  ds [as J = constant] [as  dA  A and  = 0o] ID (1) Unit and dimension : Current density J is a vector quantity having S.I. unit Amp/m2 and dimension.[L–2A] U (2) Current density in terms of velocity of charge : In case of uniform flow of charge i through a cross-section normal to it as i  nqvA so, J  n  (nqv) n or J  nq v  v ( ) [With A charge   nq ] volume D YG i.e., current density at a point is equal to the product of volume charge density with velocity of charge distribution at that point. (3) Current density in terms of electric field : Current density relates with electric field E as J  σ E  ; where  = conductivity and  = resistivity or specific resistance of substance. ρ (i) Direction of current density J is same as that of electric field E. (ii) If electric field is uniform (i.e. E  constant ) current density will be constant [as  = constant] U (iii) If electric field is zero (as in electrostatics inside a conductor), current density and hence current will be zero. ST Conduction of Current in Metals. According to modern views, a metal consists of a ‘lattice’ of fixed positively charged ions in which billions and billions of free electrons are moving randomly at speed which at room temperature (i.e. 300 K) in accordance with kinetic theory of gases is given by v rms  3kT  m 3  (1.38  10 23 )  300 ~ – 10 5 m / s 9.1  10 31 The randomly moving free electrons inside the metal collide with the lattice and follow a zigzag path as shown in figure (A). – (A) + (B) 4 Current Electricity 60 However, in absence of any electric field due to this random motion, the number of electrons crossing from left to right is equal to the number of electrons crossing from right to left (otherwise metal will not remain equipotential) so the net current through a cross-section is zero. E3 When an electric field is applied, inside the conductor due to electric force the path of electron in general becomes curved (parabolic) instead of straight lines and electrons drift opposite to the field figure (B). Due to this drift the random motion of electrons get modified and there is a net transfer of electrons across a cross-section resulting in current. (1) Drift velocity : Drift velocity is the average uniform velocity acquired by free electrons inside a metal by the application of an electric field which is responsible for current through it. ID Drift velocity is very small it is of the order of 10 –4 m/s as compared to thermal speed (~– 10 5 m / s) of electrons at room temperature. U If suppose for a conductor n = Number of electron per unit volume of the conductor A = Area of cross-section D YG V = potential difference across the conductor l A vd E + V – E = electric field inside the conductor U  1 i = current, J = current density,  = specific resistance,  = conductivity     then   i  neAv d current relates with drift velocity as we can also write i J σE E V. vd      neA ne ne ρne ρ l n e Note :  The direction of drift velocity for electron in a metal is opposite to that of applied electric field (i.e. current density J ). ST  v d  E i.e., greater the electric field, larger will be the drift velocity.  When a steady current flows through a conductor of non-uniform cross-section 1  drift velocity varies inversely with area of cross-section  v d   A   If diameter of a conductor is doubled, then drift velocity of electrons inside it will not change. (2) Relaxation time () : The time interval between two successive collisions of electrons with the positive ions in the metallic lattice is defined as relaxation time mean free path  with rise in temperature vrms increases consequently    r.m.s. velocity of electrons v rms decreases. Current Electricity 5 (3) Mobility : Drift velocity per unit electric field is called mobility of electron i.e.   unit is vd. It’s E m2. volt  sec 60 Concepts Human body, though has a large resistance of the order of k (say 10 k), is very sensitive to minute currents even as low as a few mA. Electrocution, excites and disorders the nervous system of the body and hence one fails to control the activity of the body.  1 ampere of current means the flow of 6.25  1018 electrons per second through any cross-section of the conductors.  dc flows uniformly throughout the cross-section of conductor while ac mainly flows through the outer surface area of the conductor. This is known as skin effect.  It is worth noting that electric field inside a charged conductor is zero, but it is non zero inside a current + + + V+ l + where V = potential difference across the conductor and l = length ID + carrying conductor and is given by E  E3  + Ein = 0l of the conductor. Electric field out side the current carrying is zero.  + + + + + – U + Ein = V/l For a given conductor JA = i = constant so that J  J1 1 i.e.,i J1 A1 = J2 A2 ; this is called equation of continuity A J2 D YG i A1 A2 If cross-section is constant, I  J i.e. for a given cross-sectional area, greater the current density, larger will be current.  The drift velocity of electrons is small because of the frequent collisions suffered by electrons.  The small value of drift velocity produces a large amount of electric current, due to the presence of extremely large number of free electrons in a conductor. The propagation of current is almost at the speed of light and involves electromagnetic process. It is due to this reason that the electric bulb glows immediately when U  switch is on. In the absence of electric field, the paths of electrons between successive collisions are straight line while in presence of electric field the paths are generally curved.  Free electron density in a metal is given by n  ST  NAx d where NA = Avogrado number, x = number of free A electrons per atom, d = density of metal and A = Atomic weight of metal. Example s Example: 1 The potential difference applied to an X-ray tube is 5 KV and the current through it is 3.2 mA. Then the number of electrons striking the target per second is (a) 2  1016 (b) 5  106 (c) 1  1017 (d) 4  1015 6 Current Electricity q ne  t t  n it 3. 2  10 3  1   2  10 16 e 1. 6  10 19 Solution : (a) i Example: 2 A beam of electrons moving at a speed of 106 m/s along a line produces a current of 1.6  10–6 A. The number of electrons in the 1 metre of the beam is (a) 106 (b) 107 (c) 1013 60 1.6  10 6  1 ix q q qv nev  n   10 7    19 6 ev 1.6  10 t ( x / v) x x  10 (d) 1019 i Example: 3 In the Bohr’s model of hydrogen atom, the electrons moves around the nucleus in a circular orbit of a radius 5  10–11 metre. It’s time period is 1.5  10–16 sec. The current associated is [MNR 1992] E3 Solution : (b) (b) 1.6  10–19 A (a) Zero (c) 0.17 A q 1. 6  10 19   1. 07  10  3 A T 1. 5  10 16 (d) 1.07  10–3 A i Example: 4 An electron is moving in a circular path of radius 5.1  10–11 m at a frequency of 6.8  1015 revolution/sec. The equivalent current is approximately (a) 5.1  10–3 A ID Solution : (d) (b) 6.8  10–3 A (d) 2.2  10–3 A Q  1.6  10 19  6.8  10 15 = 1.1  10–3 A T U 1 (c) 1.1  10–3 A Solution : (c)   6.8  10 15  T  Example: 5 A copper wire of length 1m and radius 1mm is joined in series with an iron wire of length 2m and radius 3mm and a current is passed through the wire. The ratio of current densities in the copper and iron wire is (a) 18 : 1 Solution : (b) sec  i D YG 6. 8  10 15 We know J  (b) 9 : 1 i A 2 when i = constant J  [MP PMT 1994] (c) 6 : 1 1 A (d) 2 : 3  r  Jc A 9 3  i   i      Ji A c  rc  1 1 U 2 A conducting wire of cross-sectional area 1 cm2 has 3  1023 m–3 charge carriers. If wire carries a current of 24 mA, the drift speed of the carrier is ST Example: 6 (a) 5  10–6 m/s (b) 5  10–3 m/s (c) 0.5 m/s (d) 5  10–2 m/s i 24  10 3   5  10  3 m / s neA 3  10 23  1.6  10 19  10  4 Solution : (b) vd  Example: 7 A wire has a non-uniform cross-sectional area as shown in figure. A steady current i flows through it. Which one of the following statement is correct A B Current Electricity 7 (a) The drift speed of electron is constant from A to B (b) The drift speed increases on moving (d) The drift speed 60 (c) The drift speed decreases on moving from A to B varies randomly 1 Area of cross - section For a conductor of non-uniform cross-section vd  Example: 8 In a wire of circular cross-section with radius r, free electrons travel with a drift velocity v, when a current i flows through the wire. What is the current in another wire of half the radius and of the some material when the drift velocity is 2v (a) 2i E3 Solution : (c) (b) i (c) i/2 2 Example: 9 ne r 2 v i r  i  neAv d = ner2v and i'  ne   .2v  2 2 2 ID Solution : (c) (d) i/4 A potential difference of V is applied at the ends of a copper wire of length l and diameter d. On doubling only d, drift velocity (b) Becomes half (c) Does not change (d) U (a) Becomes two times Drift velocity doesn’t depends upon diameter. Example: 10 A current flows in a wire of circular cross-section with the free electrons travelling with a mean drift velocity v. If an equal current flows in a wire of twice the radius new mean drift D YG Solution : (c) velocity is (a) v (b) v 2 (c) v 4 (d) None of these i 1 v  vd   v'  neA A 4 By using v d  Example: 11 Two wires A and B of the same material, having radii in the ratio 1 : 2 and carry currents in the ratio 4 : 1. The ratio of drift speeds of electrons in A and B is U Solution : (c) (a) 16 : 1 As i  neA v d  ST Solution : (a) (b) 1 : 16 (c) 1 : 4 (d) 4 : 1 vd vd i1 A r 2 vd 16  1  1  12. 1  1  v v 1 i2 A 2 v d2 r2 d2 d2 Tricky example: 1 In a neon discharge tube 2.9  1018 Ne+ ions move to the right each second while 1.2  1018 electrons move to the left per second. Electron charge is 1.6  10–19 C. The current in the discharge tube [MP PET 1999] (a) 1 A towards right left (d) Zero Solution: (b) (b) 0.66 A towards right (c) Use following trick to solve such type of problem. 0.66 A towards 8 Current Electricity Trick : In a discharge tube positive ions carry q units of charge in t seconds from anode to cathode and negative carriers (electrons) carry the same amount of charge q q' from cathode to anode in t second. The current in the tube is i  . t t' 2.9  10 18  e 1.2  10 18  e   0.66 A towards right. 1 1 60 Hence in this question current i  Tricky example: 2 (a) 0.1 mm/sec (b) 0.2 mm/sec E3 If the current flowing through copper wire of 1 mm diameter is 1.1 amp. The drift velocity of electron is (Given density of Cu is 9 gm/cm3, atomic weight of Cu is 63 grams and one free electron is contributed by each atom) (c) 0.3 mm/sec (d) 0.5 mm/sec 6.023  1023 atoms has mass = 63  10–3 kg So no. of atoms per m3 = n  63  10 3  9  10 3  8. 5  10 28 1.1 i   0.1  10  3 m / sec  0.1 mm / sec 28 19 3 2   neA 8.5  10  1.6  10    (0.5  10 ) U vd  6.023  10 23 ID Solution: (a) Ohm’s Law. D YG If the physical circumstances of the conductor (length, temperature, mechanical strain etc.) remains constant, then the current flowing through the conductor is directly proportional to the potential difference across it’s two ends i.e. i  V  V  iR or V  R ; where R is a proportionality constant, known as electric resistance. i (1) Ohm’s law is not a universal law, the substance which obeys ohm’s law are known as U ohmic substance for such ohmic substances graph between V and i is a straight line as shown. At different temperatures V-i curves are different. V ST V T1 1 T2 2  i Slope of the line = V tan   R i 1 2 i Here tan1 > tan2 So R1 > R2 i.e. T1 > T2 (2) The device or substances which doesn’t obey ohm’s law e.g. gases, crystal rectifiers, thermoionic valve, transistors etc. are known as non-ohmic or non-linear conductors. For these V-i curve is not linear. In these situation the ratio between voltage and current at a particular voltage is known as static resistance. While the rate of change of voltage to change in current is Crysta known as dynamic resistance. i l rectifi er  A  V V Current Electricity 9 Rst  V 1  i tan  while Rdyn  V 1  I tan  Tetrode valve i i B i Semi conductor Torch bulb Diode C A V V (A) (B) V V (C) (D) ID Resistance. E3 i 60 (3) Some other non-ohmic graphs are as follows : U (1) Definition : The property of substance by virtue of which it opposes the flow of current through it, is known as the resistance. (2) Cause of resistance of a conductor : It is due to the collisions of free electrons with the ions or atoms of the conductor while drifting towards the positive end of the conductor. D YG (3) Formula of resistance : For a conductor if l = length of a conductor A = Area of cross-section of conductor, n = No. of free electrons per unit volume in conductor,  = l m l. ; where  = resistivity of the relaxation time then resistance of conductor R  ρ  2 A ne  A material of conductor U (4) Unit and dimension : It’s S.I. unit is Volt/Amp. or Ohm (). Also 1 ohm 10 8 emu of potenti al 1volt   = 109 emu of resistance. It’s dimension is [ML 2 T 3 A 2 ]. 1 Amp 10 1 emu of current ST (5) Conductance (C) : Reciprocal of resistance is known as conductance. C  1 or –1 or “Siemen”.  1 It’s unit is R i Slope = tan   i V   1 R C V (6) Dependence of resistance : Resistance of a conductor depends on the following factors. (i) Length of the conductor : Resistance of a conductor is directly proportional to it’s length i.e. R  l e.g. a conducting wire having resistance R is cut in n equal parts. So resistance of each R part will be. n 10 Current Electricity (ii) Area of cross-section of the conductor : Resistance of a conductor is inversely 1 proportional to it’s area of cross-section i.e. R  A l 60 l Less : Area of crosssection More : Resistance More : Area of section Less : Resistance cross- (iv) Temperature : We know that R  E3 (iii) Material of the conductor : Resistance of conductor also depends upon the nature of 1 material i.e. R  , for different conductors n is different. Hence R is also different. n m l l. R  2  ne  A when a metallic conductor is heated, ID the atom in the metal vibrate with greater amplitude and frequency about their mean positions. Consequently the number of collisions between free electrons and Rt atoms increases. This reduces the relaxation time  and increases the value of resistance R i.e. for a conductor O R0 = resistance of conductor at 0oC D YG If R0 U Resistance  temperatur e. to C Rt = resistance of conductor at toC and ,  = temperature co-efficient of resistance (unit peroC) then R t  R 0 (1  t  t 2 ) for t > 300oC and R t  R 0 (1  αt ) for t  300oC Note :  or   Rt  R0 R0  t If R1 and R2 are the resistances at t1oC and t2oC respectively then R1 1   t1.  R2 1   t 2 ST U  The value of  is different at different temperature. Temperature coefficient of R  R1 resistance averaged over the temperature range t1oC to t2oC is given by   2 R1 (t2  t1 ) which gives R2 = R1 [1 +  (t2 – t1)]. This formula gives an approximate value. (v) Resistance according to potential difference : Resistance of a conducting body is not unique but depends on it’s length and area of cross-section i.e. how the potential difference is applied. See the following figures   c b Length = b c b a a Length = a  b c a Length = c Current Electricity 11 Area of cross-section = a  c  b   ac Resistance R    Area of cross-section = b  c  a   bc Resistance R    Area of cross-section = a  b  c   ab Resistance R    (7) Variation of resistance of some electrical material with temperature : 60 (i) Metals : For metals their temperature coefficient of resistance  > 0. So resistance increases with temperature. Physical explanation : Collision frequency of free electrons with the immobile positive ions E3 increases (ii) Solid non-metals : For these  = 0. So resistance is independence of temperature. Physical explanation : Complete absence of free electron. (iii) Semi-conductors : For semi-conductor  < 0 i.e. resistance decreases with temperature ID rise. Physical explanation : Covalent bonds breaks, liberating more free electron and conduction increases. U (iv) Electrolyte : For electrolyte  < 0 i.e. resistance decreases with temperature rise. D YG Physical explanation : The degree of ionisation increases and solution becomes less viscous. (v) Ionised gases : For ionised gases  < 0 i.e. resistance decreases with temperature rise. Physical explanation : Degree of ionisation increases. (vi) Alloys : For alloys  has a small positive values. So with rise in temperature resistance of alloys is almost constant. Further alloy resistances are slightly higher than the pure metals resistance. U Alloys are used to made standard resistances, wires of resistance box, potentiometer wire, meter bridge wire etc. ST Commonly used alloys are : Constantan, mangnin, Nichrome etc. (vii) Super conductors : At low temperature, the resistance of certain substances becomes exactly zero. (e.g. Hg below 4.2 K or Pb below 7.2 K). These substances are called super conductors and phenomenon super conductivity. The temperature at which resistance becomes zero is called critical temperature and depends upon the nature of substance. Resistivity or Specific Resistance (). l ; If l = 1m, A = 1 m2 then R  ρ i.e. resistivity is numerically A equal to the resistance of a substance having unit area of cross-section and unit length. (1) Definition : From R   12 Current Electricity (2) Unit and dimension : It’s S.I. unit is ohm  m and dimension is [ML3 T 3 A 2 ] (3) It’s formula :   m ne 2 60 (4) It’s dependence : Resistivity is the intrinsic property of the substance. It is independent of shape and size of the body (i.e. l and A). It depends on the followings : (i) Nature of the body : For different substances their resistivity also different e.g. silver = minimum = 1.6  10 –8 -m and fused quartz = maximum  1016 -m E3 (ii) Temperature : Resistivity depends on the temperature. For metals t = 0 (1 + t) i.e. resitivity increases with temperature. Semiconductor   Superconductor  ID Metal TC T  decreases with temperature and  decreases with temperature D YG  increases with temperature T U T becomes zero at a certain temperature (iii) Impurity and mechanical stress : Resistivity increases with impurity and mechanical stress. (iv) Effect of magnetic field : Magnetic field increases the resistivity of all metals except iron, cobalt and nickel. U (v) Effect of light : Resistivity of certain substances like selenium, cadmium, sulphides is inversely proportional to intensity of light falling upon them. Resistivity of  ρ alloy  ρ semi -conductor  ST (5) ρ insulator (Maximum for fused quartz) some electrical : ρ conductor (Minimum for silver) Note :  Reciprocal of resistivity is called conductivity () i.e. dimensions material   1  with unit mho/m and [M 1 L3 T 3 A 2 ]. Stretching of Wire. If a conducting wire stretches, it’s length increases, area of cross-section decreases so resistance increases but volume remain constant. Current Electricity 13 Suppose for a conducting wire before stretching it’s length = l1, area of cross-section = A1, radius = r1, diameter = d1, and resistance R1   l1 A1 After stretching l1 l2   E3 Volume remains constant i.e. A1l1 = A2l2 60 Before stretching After stretching length = l2, area of cross-section = A2, radius = r2, diameter = d2 and resistance  R2   l2 A2 2 4 2 r  1 R  1   2  4 R2  r1  r 4 D YG (2) If radius is given then R  R1  l1    R2  l2  U (1) If length is given then R  l 2  Note :  4 ID Ratio of resistances 2 A  r  d  R1 l1 A2  l1         2    2    2  R2 l 2 A1  l 2   A1   r1   d1  After stretching if length increases by n times then resistance will increase by n2 times i.e. R2  n 2 R1. Similarly if radius be reduced to cross-section decreases 1 n 2 1 times then area of n times so the resistance becomes n4 times i.e. R2  n 4 R1. U  After stretching if length of a conductor increases by x% then resistance will increases by 2x % (valid only if x < 10%) ST Various Electrical Conducting Material For Specific Use. (1) Filament of electric bulb : Is made up of tungsten which has high resistivity, high melting point. (2) Element of heating devices (such as heater, geyser or press) : Is made up of nichrome which has high resistivity and high melting point. (3) Resistances of resistance boxes (standard resistances) : Are made up of manganin, or constantan as these materials have moderate resistivity which is practically independent of temperature so that the specified value of resistance does not alter with minor changes in temperature. 14 Current Electricity (4) Fuse-wire : Is made up of tin-lead alloy (63% tin + 37% lead). It should have low melting point and high resistivity. It is used in series as a safety device in an electric circuit and is designed so as to melt and thereby open the circuit if the current exceeds a predetermined value due to some fault. The function of a fuse is independent of its length. 60 Safe current of fuse wire relates with it’s radius as i  r 3/2. (5) Thermistors : A thermistor is a heat sensitive resistor usually prepared from oxides of E3 various metals such as nickel, copper, cobalt, iron etc. These compounds are also semiconductor. For thermistors  is very high which may be positive or negative. The resistance of thermistors changes very rapidly with change of temperature. ID i V U Thermistors are used to detect small temperature change and to measure very low temperature.  D YG Concepts In the absence of radiation loss, the time in which a fuse will melt does not depends on it’s length but varies with radius as t  r 4.  If length (l) and mass (m) of a conducting wire is given then R   Macroscopic form of Ohm’s law is R  V , while it’s microscopic form is J =  E. i U Example s l2. m Two wires of resistance R1 and R2 have temperature co-efficient of resistance 1 and 2 respectively. These are joined in series. The effective temperature co-efficient of resistance is [MP PET 2003] ST Example: 12 (a) Solution : (c) 1   2 2 (b)  1 2 (c)  1 R1   2 R 2 R1  R 2 (d) R 1 R 2  1 2 R 12  R 22 Suppose at toC resistances of the two wires becomes R 1 t and R 2 t respectively and equivalent resistance becomes Rt. In series grouping Rt = R1t + R2t, also R1t = R1(1 + 1t) and R2t = R2(1 + 2t)  R   R 2 2 Rt = R1(1 + 1t) + R2(1 + 2t) = (R1 + R2) + (R11 + R22)t = (R1  R 2 )1  1 1 R1  R 2   t.  Current Electricity 15 Hence effective temperature co-efficient is Example: 13 R 1 1  R 2  2. R1  R 2 From the graph between current i & voltage V shown, identity the portion corresponding to negative resistance [CBSE PMT 1997] (a) DE 60 i C E B (b) CD D (c) BC A V E3 (d) AB V , in the graph CD has only negative slope. So in this portion R is negative. I R Example: 14 A wire of length L and resistance R is streched to get the radius of cross-section halfed. What is new resistance ID Solution : (b) [NCERT 1974; CPMT 1994; AIIMS 1997; KCET 1999; Haryana PMT 2000; UPSEAT 2001] (a) 5 R (b) 8 R R1  r2    R 2  r1  4  R r/2   R'  r  (c) 4 R (d) 16 R 4  R'  16 R By using Example: 15 The V-i graph for a conductor at temperature T1 and T2 are as shown in the figure. (T2 – T1) is proportional to D YG U Solution : (d) (a) cos 2 T1 (b) sin  (c) cot 2  i (d) tan As we know, for conductors resistance  Temperature. From figure R1  T1  tan  T1  tan = kT1 ……. (i) and R2  T2  tan (90o – )  T2  cot = kT2 ……..(ii) U Solution : (c) T2 V (k = constant) ST From equation (i) and (ii) k (T2  T1 )  (cot   tan  ) 2 2 cos 2  cos  sin   (cos   sin  ) (T2  T1 )      2 cot 2  (T2 – T1)  cot 2  sin  cos  sin  cos  sin  cos    Example: 16 The resistance of a wire at 20oC is 20  and at 500oC is 60. At which temperature resistance will be 25 [UPSEAT 1999] o (a) 50 C Solution : (d) By using o o (b) 60 C R1 (1   t1 ) 20 1  20      500  60 1 R 2 (1   t 2 ) (c) 70 C    1 220 o (d) 80 C 16 Current Electricity 1    20  1  220 20    t = 80oC Again by using the same formula for 20 and 25   25 1    t 1  220   The specific resistance of manganin is 50  10–8 m. The resistance of a manganin cube having length 50 cm is (a) 10–6  (b) 2.5  10–5  (c) 10–8  l 50  10 8  50  10 2   10 6  A (50  10  2 ) 2 60 Example: 17 (d) 5  10–4  R Example: 18 A rod of certain metal is 1 m long and 0.6 cm in diameter. It’s resistance is 3  10–3. A disc of the same metal is 1 mm thick and 2 cm in diameter, what is the resistance between it’s circular faces. (b) 2.7  10–7  (c) 4.05  10–6 (d) 8.1  10–6  ID (a) 1.35  10–6 E3 Solution : (a) R disc l R disc l disc A rod 10 3  (0.3  10 2 ) 2 ;     Rdisc = 2.7  10–7.   3 2 2 A R rod l rod A disc 1  (10 ) 3  10 By using R  . Example: 19 An aluminium rod of length 3.14 m is of square cross-section 3.14  3.14 mm2. What should U Solution : (b) be the radius of 1 m long another rod of same material to have equal resistance (b) 4 mm (c) 1 mm D YG (a) 2 mm (d) 6 mm 3. 14 3. 14  3. 14  10 6 l  lA  r = 10–3 m = 1 mm 1 A   r2 Solution : (c) By using R  . Example: 20 Length of a hollow tube is 5m, it’s outer diameter is 10 cm and thickness of it’s wall is 5 mm. If resistivity of the material of the tube is 1.7  10–8 m then resistance of tube will be (b) 2  10–5  By using R  . l ; here A   (r22  r12 ) A (c) 4  10–5  Outer radius r2 = 5cm ST Example: 21 5 mm r1 10 cm Inner radius r1 = 5 – 0.5 = 4.5 cm So R  1.7  10 8  (d) None of these r2 U Solution : (a) (a) 5.6  10–5  5  {(5  10 2 2 )  (4.5  10 2 2  5.6  10 5  ) } If a copper wire is stretched to make it 0.1% longer, the percentage increase in resistance will be (a) 0.2 [MP PMT 1996, 2000; UPSEAT 1998; MNR 1990] (b) 2 (c) 1 (d) 0.1 R l 2  2  0.1  0.2 R l Solution : (a) In case of streching R  l2 Example: 22 The temperature co-efficient of resistance of a wire is 0.00125/oC. At 300 K. It’s resistance is 1. The resistance of the wire will be 2 at So [MP PMT 2001; IIT 1980] Current Electricity 17 (a) 1154 K (b) 1127 K (c) 600 K R1 1   t1  R2 1   t2 (d) 1400 K 1 1  (300  273 )  2 1   t2 Solution: (b) By using Rt = Ro (1 + t)  Example: 23 Equal potentials are applied on an iron and copper wire of same length. In order to have  r same current flow in the wire, the ratio  iron  rcopper   t2 = 854oC = 1127 K   of their radii must be [Given that specific   60 So resistance of iron = 1.0  10–7 m and that of copper = 1.7  10–8 m] (a) About 1.2 ri  rCu   i li ri  Cu l Cu 2 rCu Masses of three wires are in the ratio 1 : 3 : 5 and their lengths are in the ratio 5 : 3 : 1. The ratio of their electrical resistance is (b) 5 : 3 : 1 l l2 l2    A V m (c) 1 : 15 : 125 (d) 125 : 15 : 1 m     V  D YG R R1 : R 2 : R 3  Example: 25  i 1.0  10 7 100    2.4 8 17  Cu 1.7  10 (a) 1 : 3 : 5 Solution: (d) 2 So R = constant ID  Pi li  l  Cu Cu Ai A Cu (d) About 4.8 E3 V = constant., i = constant.  Example: 24 (c) About 3.6 U Solution: (b) (b) About 2.4 l12 l2 l2 9 1 : 2 : 3  25 : :  125 : 15 : 1 3 5 m1 m 2 m 3 Following figure shows cross-sections through three long conductors of the same length and material, with square cross-section of edge lengths as shown. Conductor B will fit U snugly within conductor A, and conductor C will fit snugly within conductor B. Relationship between their end to end resistance is 3a 2a ST (a) RA = RB = RC (b) RA > RB > RC a A B C (c) RA < RB < R (d) Information is not sufficient Solution : (a)   All the conductors have equal lengths. Area of cross-section of A is ( 3 a) 2  ( 2 a) 2  a 2 Similarly area of cross-section of B = Area of cross-section of C = a2 Hence according to formula R   = RC l ; resistances of all the conductors are equal i.e. RA = RB A 18 Current Electricity Example: 26 Dimensions of a block are 1 cm  1 cm  100 cm. If specific resistance of its material is 3  10–7 ohm-m, then the resistance between it’s opposite rectangular faces is (a) 3  10–9 ohm Solution: (b) (b) 3  10–7 ohm (c) 3  10–5 ohm (d) 3  10–3 ohm Length l = 1 cm  10 2 m 60 Area of cross-section A = 1 cm  100 cm 10 2 10  2 = 3  10–7  100 cm E3 Resistance R = 3  10–7  1 cm = 100 cm2 = 10–2 m2 1 cm Note : In the above question for calculating equivalent resistance between two opposite square faces. ID l = 100 cm = 1 m, A = 1 cm2 = 10–4 m2, so resistance R = 3  10–7  10 4 = 3  10–3  U Tricky example: 3 1 D YG Two rods A and B of same material and length have their electric resistances are in ratio 1 : 2. When both the rods are dipped in water, the correct statement will be (a) A has more loss of weight of weight (b) (c) Both have same loss of weight 1:2 Solution: (a) R B has more loss (d) Loss of weight will be in the ratio A R R A L  1  2 (, L constant)  1  2  2 A R2 A1 A2 R1 U Now when a body dipped in water, loss of weight = VLg = ALLg ST (Loss of weight) 1 A  1  2 ; So A has more loss of weight So Tricky example: 4(Loss of weight) 2 A2 The V-i graph for a conductor makes an angle  with V-axis. Here V denotes the voltage and i denotes current. The resistance of conductor is given by (a) sin Solution: (d) cos (b) (c) tan (d) V student will choose tan will be the right answer. But At an instant approach the it is to be seen here the curve makes the angle  with the V-axis. So it makes an angle (90 – ) with the i-axis. So resistance = slope = tan (90 – ) = cot.  i co D YG U ID E3 60 Current Electricity 19 Colour Coding of Resistance. U The resistance, having high values are used in different electrical and electronic circuits. They are generally made up of carbon, like 1 k, 2 k, 5 k etc. To know the value of resistance ST colour code is used. These code are printed in form of set of rings or strips. By reading the values of colour bands, we can estimate the value of resistance. The carbon resistance has normally four coloured rings or strips say A, B, C and D as shown in following figure. A B C D Colour band A and B indicate the first two significant figures of resistance in ohm, while the C band gives the decimal multiplier i.e. the number of zeros that follows the two significant figures A and B. 20 Current Electricity Last band (D band) indicates the tolerance in percent about the indicated value or in other ward it represents the percentage accuracy of the indicated value. The tolerance in the case of gold is  5% and in silver is  10%. If only three bands are marked on carbon resistance, then it indicate a tolerance of 20%. Colour Figure Multiplier (A, B) (C) Black 0 10o B Brown 1 101 R Red 2 102 O Orange 3 103 Y Yellow 4 G Green 5 B Blue V Violet W (D) Gold 5% Silver 10% No-colour 20% 104 105 106 7 107 U 6 D YG G Tolerance ID B Colour E3 Letters as an aid to memory 60 The following table gives the colour code for carbon resistance. Grey 8 108 White 9 109 Note :  To remember the sequence of colour code following sentence should kept in memory. B B R O Y Great Britain Very Good Wife. U Grouping of Resistance. ST Series (1) Parallel R1 R2 R3 V1 V2 V3 i1 (1) i2 i3 i i + V – (2) Same current flows through each resistance but potential difference distributes in the ratio of resistance i.e. V  R Power consumed are in the ratio of their resistance i.e. P  R  P1 : P2 : P3  R1 : R 2 : R 3 R1 R2 R3 V (2) Same potential difference appeared across each resistance but current distributes in the 1 reverse ratio of their resistance i.e. i  R Power consumed are in the reverse ratio of resistance i.e. Current Electricity 21 P is greater than the maximum value of resistance in the combination. 1 1 1 1    R eq R1 R 2 R 3 (3) or R eq  (R11  R 21  R 31 ) 1 R eq  or 60 R eq  R1  R 2  R 3 equivalent resistance (3) 1 1 1 1  P1 : P2 : P3  : : R R1 R 2 R 3 R1 R 2 R 3 R1 R 2  R 2 R 3  R 2 R1 equivalent resistance is smaller than the minimum value of resistance in the combination. (4) For two resistance in parallel R1 R 2 Multiplica tion R eq   R1  R 2 Addition (5) Potential (5) Current through any resistance across any resistance  V    Resistance of opposite branch  i'  i    Total resistance   ID  R' V'    R eq  difference E3 (4) For two resistance in series Req = R1 + R2 Where R = Resistance across which potential Where i = required current (branch current) i = main current D YG U difference is to be calculated, Req = equivalent resistance of that line in which R is R2 connected, V =R1p.d. across that line in which R is connectedV1 V2 e.g. +  R2    V and V2    R1  R 2  ST V'  Note V n i2 R2 i  R2 i1  i   R1  R 2   R1  and i2  i    R1  R 2       V  (6) If n identical resistance are connected in series R eq  nR R1 – U  R1 V1    R1  R 2 V i1 and p.d. across each resistance (6) In n identical resistance are connected in parallel R eq  i'  R and current through each resistance n i n :  In case of resistances in series, if one resistance gets open, the current in the whole circuit become zero and the circuit stops working. Which don’t happen in case of parallel gouging.  Decoration of lightning in festivals is an example of series grouping whereas all household appliances connected in parallel grouping. 22 Current Electricity  Using n conductors of equal resistance, the number of possible combinations is 2 n 1 –.  If the resistance of n conductors are totally different, then the number of possible combinations will be 2n. 60 Methods of Determining Equivalent Resistance For Some Difficult Networks. (1) Method of successive reduction : It is the most common technique to determine the E3 equivalent resistance. So far, we have been using this method to find out the equivalent resistances. This method is applicable only when we are able to identify resistances in series or in parallel. The method is based on the simplification of the circuit by successive reduction of the series and parallel combinations. For example to calculate the equivalent resistance between the point A and B, the network shown below successively reduced. R R R 2R R  2R R R B  R R 2R A R A B RA 2R D YG 2R A R R U  2R ID R R R R R R B  3R/2 A B B (2) Method of equipotential points : This method is based on identifying the points of same potential and joining them. The basic rule to identify the points of same potential is the symmetry of the network. (i) In a given network there may be two axes of symmetry. U (a) Parallel axis of symmetry, that is, along the direction of current flow. (b) Perpendicular axis of symmetry, that is perpendicular to the direction of flow of ST current. For example in the network shown below the axis AA is the parallel axis of symmetry, and the axis BB is the perpendicular axis of symmetry. B 2 R R 6 7 R R A R A R 1 O R 3 R R 8 5 R R B4 R Current Electricity 23 (ii) Points lying on the perpendicular axis of symmetry may have same potential. In the ST U D YG U ID E3 60 given network, point 2, 0 and 4 are at the same potential. 20 Current Electricity (iii) Points lying on the parallel axis of symmetry can never have same potential. (iv) The network can be folded about the parallel axis of symmetry, and the overlapping nodes have same potential. Thus as shown in figure, the following points have same potential (b) 2, 0 and 4 2, 4 R R 5, 6 R 7, 8 1  R/2 R/2 3R/ 2 1 3 3 3 O 1 R/2 R/2 R R R R :  Above network may be split up into two equal parts about the parallel axis of ID Note  R R R R/2 R/2 R E3 R (c) 7 and 8 60 (a) 5 and 6 2 U symmetry as shown in figure each part has a resistance R, then the equivalent resistance of the R' network will be R . 2 R R R R D YG R 1 R  = 3R  R 1 3 A A 3 Some Standard Results for Equivalent Resistance. (1) Equivalent resistance between points A and B in an unbalanced Wheatstone’s bridge as shown in the diagram. (i) Q U P (ii) G ST A R R AB  B Q P G A S B Q PQ(R  S )  (P  Q)RS  G(P  Q)(R  S ) G(P  Q  R  S )  (P  R)(Q  S ) R AB  P 2 PQ  G(P  Q) 2G  P  Q (2) A cube each side have resistance R then equivalent resistance in different situations (i) Between E and C i.e. across the diagonal of the cube R EC  (ii) Between A and B i.e. across one side of the cube R AB  5 R 6 H G E F 7 R 12 D A C B Current Electricity 21 Between A and C i.e. across the diagonal of one face of the cube R AC  (3) The equivalent resistance of infinite network of resistances A R1 R1 R1 A R3 B R2 R3 R2 R3 R2 R3 R1  B   R1 R2 R2 R2 1 1 (R 1  R 2 )  ( R 1  R 2 ) 2  4 R 3 (R 1  R 2 ) 2 2 R1 R1 R2 1/2 R AB   R 1 R1 1  1  4  2 2   R1  R2       ID R AB  (ii) R1 E3 (i) 3 R 4 60 (iii) Concepts If n identical resistances are first connected in series and then in parallel, the ratio of the equivalent resistance is given by  Rs  n2. 1 If equivalent resistance of R1 and R2 in series 1 1  R1   R s  R s2  4 R s R p  and R 2   R s  R s2  4 R s R p 2 2  D YG  Rp U  and parallel be Rs and Rp respectively then .  If a wire of resistance R, cut in n equal parts and then these parts are collected to form a bundle then R equivalent resistance of combination will be. n2 Example s In the figure a carbon resistor has band of different colours on its body. The resistance of the following body is U Example: 27 Red [Kerala PET 2002] Silver ST (a) 2.2 k (b) 3.3 k (c) 5.6 k (d) 9.1 k White Brow n Solution : (d) R = 91  102  10%  9.1 k Example: 28 What is the resistance of a carbon resistance which has bands of colours brown, black and brown [DCE 1999] (a) 100  (b) 1000  (c) 10  Solution : (a) R = 10  10  20%  100  Example: 29 In the following circuit reading of voltmeter V is 1 (d) 1  22 Current Electricity (a) 12 V 4 16  (b) 8 V V (c) 20 V 2A (d) 16 V 4 4 P.d. between X and Y is VXY = VX – VY = 1  4 = 4 V …. (i) 1A and p.d. between X and Z is VXZ = VX – VZ = 1  16 = 16 V V X E3 1A Z 16  4 (b) 45  ID An electric cable contains a single copper wire of radius 9 mm. It’s resistance is 5 . This cable is replaced by six insulated copper wires, each of radius 3 mm. The resultant resistance of cable will be [CPMT 1988] (a) 7.5  (c) 90  (d) 270  Initially : Resistance of given cable l   (9  10  3 ) 2 l ….. (i) D YG R U Solution : (a) Y …. (ii) 2A On solving equations (i) and (ii) we get potential difference between Y and Z i.e., reading of voltmeter is VY  VZ  12 V Example: 30 16  60 Solution : (a) 16   9 mm Finally : Resistance of each insulated copper wire is R'  l l   (3  10 3 ) 2  Hence equivalent resistance of cable R' 1  l     6 6    (3  10  3 ) 2 U R eq    ….. (ii)   ST On solving equation (i) and (ii) we get Req = 7.5  Example: 31 Two resistance R1 and R2 provides series to parallel equivalents as n then the correct 1 relationship is Solution : (d) 2 R (a)  1  R2  R    2   R1 R (c)  1  R2   R2      R1 2    n 2     n  R (b)  1  R2    3/2 R (d)  1  R2    1/2 Series resistance R S  R1  R 2 and parallel resistance R P  R   2  R1    R   2  R1    3/2  n3 / 2 1/ 2  n1 / 2 R1 R 2 R (R  R 2 ) 2  S  1 n R1  R 2 RP R1 R 2 Current Electricity 23  R1  R 2 R1 R 2 R1 R 2 R 22  R1 R 2 10  (b) 22  X (c) 20  10  20  Y E3 The equivalent circuit of above can be drawn as Which is a balanced wheatstone bridge. 1 1 1 1  R = 10     R 20 20 10 10  X 10  Y 10  20  ID So A 10  So current through AB is zero. B What will be the equivalent resistance of circuit shown in figure between points A and D [CBSE PMT 10  10  U (a) 10  A (b) 20  D YG (c) 30  (d) 40  Solution : (c) 10  10  (d) 50  Example: 33 R2  n R1 Five resistances are combined according to the figure. The equivalent resistance between the point X and Y will be (a) 10  Solution : (a) R1  R2  n  60 Example: 32 R12   n C 10  B 10  10  10  10  10  D The equivalent circuit of above fig between A and D can be drawn as 10 Balanced wheatstone bridge 10 A U 10 10 10 10 10 A Series  10 D D 10 ST So R eq  10  10  10  30  Example: 34 In the network shown in the figure each of resistance is equal to 2. The resistance between A and B is [CBSE PMT 1995] C (a) 1  (b) 2  O (c) 3  D (d) 4  Solution : (b) A B E Taking the portion COD is figure to outside the triangle (left), the above circuit will be now as resistance of each is 2  the circuit will behaves as a balanced wheatstone bridge and no current flows through CD. Hence RAB = 2 C A O D E 24 Current Electricity Example: 35 Seven resistances are connected as shown in figure. The equivalent resistance between A and B is 60 [MP PET 2000] 10  (a) 3  10  A (b) 4  (c) 4.5  (d) 5  10  10  A 8 6 6 6 B 5 A 5  3 8 B  3 P Q U 5 Parallel (10||10) = 5 3 6 ID Solution : (b) B E3 5 8 3  R S D YG Parallel (6||6) = 3 So the circuit is a balanced wheatstone bridge. So current through 8 is zero R eq  (5  3) | | (5  3)  8 | | 8  4  Example: 36 The equivalent resistance between points A and B of an infinite network of resistance, each of 1 , connected as shown is (a) Infinite (b) 2  1 5  2 U (c) 1 1 1 A 1 1 1  B ST (d) Zero Solution : (c) Suppose the effective resistance between A and B is Req. Since the network consists of infinite cell. If we exclude one cell from the chain, remaining network have infinite cells R R i.e. effective resistance between C and D will also Req A So now R eq  R o  (R| | R eq )  R  Example: 37 R R eq R  R eq  R eq 1  [1  5 ] 2 C R Req D B Four resistances 10 , 5 , 7  and 3  are connected so that they form the sides of a rectangle AB, BC, CD and DA respectively. Another resistance of 10  is connected across the diagonal AC. The equivalent resistance between A & B is (a) 2  (b) 5  (c) 7  (d) 10  Current Electricity 25 Solution : (b) Series (7 S 3) = 10 C D 5 Series (5 S 5) = 10 C 10 10 3 Parallel (10 ||10) = 5 10  10 5  5 5 10 10 B A C A 60 7 A B B  10 10 A ID B The equivalent resistance between A and B in the circuit shown will be (a) (b) 5 r 4 r 6 r 5 7 r 6 (d) 8 r 7 r A D YG (c) U Example: 38 10  10  5  10  10 E3 R eq  So r r r r C B r Solution : (d) In the circuit, by means of symmetry the point C is at zero potential. So the equivalent circuit can be drawn as Series (r S r) = 2r U r r ST r R eq A  8r  8   | | 2r   r  3  7 r r  r 2r A B r Parall el r r r  rr 2 3 r  2  2r B Series Series 8 r 3  A Example: 39 r r B r 3 r A In the given figure, equivalent resistance between A and B will be 2r r B [CBSE PMT 2000] 26 Current Electricity 4 3  A  6 8  Given Wheatstone bridge is balanced because B 7 P R . Hence the circuit can be redrawn as Q S Parallel E3 Solution : (a)  60 14 3 3 (b) 14 9 (c) 14 14 (d) 9 (a) follows 3 Series 3 + 4 = 7  4 A B 7 R eq  A  14  3 B U 8 14 In the combination of resistances shown in the figure the potential difference between B and D is zero, when unknown resistance (x) is D YG Example: 40 ID Series 6 + 8 = 14  6 (a) 4  (b) 2  4 B x 12  A C 1 1 3 (c) 3  1 D (d) The emf of the cell is required Solution : (b) The potential difference across B, D will be zero, when the circuit will act as a balanced U wheatstone bridge and A current of 2 A flows in a system of conductors as shown. The potential difference (VA – VB) will be ST Example: 41 P R 12  4 1  3  x = 2    Q S x 1/2 2 (a) + 2V (b) + 1V (c) – 1 V (d) – 2 V Solution : (b) [CPMT 1975, 76] A 3 2A D C 3 2 B In the given circuit 2A current divides equally at junction D along the paths DAC and DBC (each path carry 1A current). Potential difference between D and A, VD – VA = 1  2 = 2 volt …. (i) Potential difference between D and B, VD – VB = 1  3 = 3 volt ….. (ii) Current Electricity 27 On solving (i) and (ii) VA – VB = + 1 volt Three resistances each of 4  are connected in the form of an equilateral triangle. The effective resistance between two corners is (a) 8  (b) 12  (c) 3  8 (d) Solution : (d) Series 4 + 4 = 8  On Solving further we get equivalent resistance is E3 4 4 4 Example: 43 8  3 60 Example: 42 If each resistance in the figure is of 9  then reading of ammeter is (a) 5 A 8  3 [RPMT 2000] + 9V – ID (b) 8 A (c) 2 A A (d) 9 A 9  9 A. Current through each resistance will be 1A and 1 only 5 resistances on the right side of ammeter contributes for passing current through the ammeter. So reading of ammeter will be 5A. Main current through the battery i  Example: 44 A wire has resistance 12 . It is bent in the form of a circle. The effective resistance between the two points on any diameter is equal to D YG U Solution : (a) (a) 12  Solution : (c) (c) 3  (d) 24  Equivalent resistance of the following circuit will be R eq  6 6  3 2 6 A wire of resistance 0.5 m–1 is bent into a circle of radius 1 m. The same wire is U Example: 45 (b) 6  connected across a diameter AB as shown in fig. The equivalent resistance is ST (a)  ohm (b)  ( + 2) ohm A (c)  / ( + 4) ohm B i i (d) ( + 1) ohm Solution : (c) Resistance of upper semicircle = Resistance of lower semicircle = 0.5  (R) = 0.5  Resistance of wire AB = 0.5  2 = 1  A 0.5  1 B Hence equivalent resistance between A and B 1 1 1 1      R AB   R AB 0.5 1 0.5 (  4 ) i i 0.5  28 Current Electricity A wire of resistor R is bent into a circular ring of radius r. Equivalent resistance between two points X and Y on its circumference, when angle XOY is , can be given by (a) (b) R 4 2 (2   ) X R (2   ) 2 60 Example: 46 (c) R (2 – ) R eq Example: 47 E3 Solution : (a) Here R XW Y  Z O Y 4 (2   ) R R R  (r )  2r 2 l R R   r(2   )  (2   )    and R XZY  r 2r 2  R R  (2   ) R XW Y R XZY R 2  2     (2   ) 2 R  R(2   ) R XW Y  R XZY 4   2 2 ID (d)  W If in the given figure i = 0.25 amp, then the value R will be i U (a) 48  (b) 12  D YG (c) 120  60 R 20 12 V 10 (d) 42  Solution : (d) i = 0.25 amp V = 12 V R eq  V 12   48  i 0.25 i R 60 Now from the circuit R eq  R  (60 | | 20 | | 10 ) Paralle l 20 12 V =R+6 10 U  R = Req – 6 = 48 – 6 = 42  Example: 48 Two uniform wires A and B are of the same metal and have equal masses. The radius of wire A is twice that of wire B. The total resistance of A and B when connected in parallel is ST (a) 4  when the resistance of wire A is 4.25  (b) 5  when the resistance of wire A is 4  (c) 4  when the resistance of wire B is 4.25  (d) 5  when the resistance of wire B is 4  Solution : (a) Density and masses of wire are same so their volumes are same i.e. A1l1 = A2l2 2 Ratio of resistances of wires A and B Since r1 = 2r2 so A  r  RA l A  1  2   2    2  RB l 2 A 1  A1   r1  4 RA 1   RB = 16 RA RB 16 Resistance RA and RB are connected in parallel so equivalent resistance R  R A RB 16 R A  , R A  RB 17 By checking correctness of equivalent resistance from options, only option (a) is correct. Tricky Example: 5 2R r 2R 2R r Current Electricity 29 The effective resistance between point P and Q of the electrical circuit shown in the figure is 2 Rr Rr (b) 8 R(R  r) 3R  r (c) 2r + 4R (d) E3 (a) 60 [IIT-JEE 1991] 5R  2r 2 Solution : (a) The points A, O, B are at same potential. So the figure can be redrawn as follows A Q O B P D YG R eq  2 Rr Rr r r 2R 2R (II ) 4R U (I)  2R ID P 2R   4 R | | 2r | | 4 R Series Series Q Series  2r Q P 4R Tricky Example: 6 ST U In the following circuit if key K is pressed then the galvanometer reading becomes half. The resistance of galvanometer + is – (a) 20  R G K S = 40  (b) 30  (c) 40  (d) 50  Solution : (c) Galvanometer reading becomes half means current distributes equally between galvanometer and resistance of 40 . Hence galvanometer resistance must be 40 . Cell. The device which converts chemical energy into electrical energy is known as electric cell. + Anode Cathod e – + – + Electrolyte A – 60 30 Current Electricity (1) A cell neither creates nor destroys charge but maintains the flow of charge present at various parts of the circuit by supplying energy needed for their organised motion. E3 (2) Cell is a source of constant emf but not constant current. (3) Mainly cells are of two types : (i) Primary cell : Cannot be recharged ID (ii) Secondary cell : Can be recharged (4) The direction of flow of current inside the cell is from negative to positive electrode while outside the cell is form positive to negative electrode. U (5) A cell is said to be ideal, if it has zero internal resistance. (6) Emf of cell (E) : The energy given by the cell in the flow of unit charge in the whole is volt D YG circuit (including the cell) is called it’s electromotive force (emf) i.e. emf of cell E  W , It’s unit q or The potential difference across the terminals of a cell when it is not given any current is called it’s emf. (7) Potential difference (V) : The energy given by the cell in ST U the flow of unit charge in a specific part of electrical circuit (external part) is called potential difference. It’s unit is also volt R i or The voltage across the terminals of a cell when it is supplying current to external resistance is called potential difference or terminal voltage. Potential difference is equal to the product of B E r A current and resistance of that given part i.e. V = iR. (8) Internal resistance (r) : In case of a cell the opposition of electrolyte to the flow of current through it is called internal resistance of the cell. The internal resistance of a cell depends on the distance between electrodes (r  d), area of electrodes [r  (1/A)] and nature, concentration (r  C) and temperature of electrolyte [r  (1/temp.)]. Internal resistance is different for different types of cells and even for a given type of cell it varies from to cell. Cell in Various Position. Current Electricity 31 (1) Closed circuit (when the cell is discharging) R E (i) Current given by the cell i  Rr V = iR i (ii) Potential difference across the resistance V  iR (iv) Equation of cell E  V  ir 60 (iii) Potential drop inside the cell = ir E, r (E > V) E3 E  (v) Internal resistance of the cell r    1   R V  Pmax = E2/4r 2 V 2  PE   (vi) Power dissipated in external resistance (load) P  Vi  i R  .R R R r 2 R=r R ID Power delivered will be maximum when R  r so Pmax E2 . 4r This statement in generalised from is called “maximum power transfer theorem”. (vii) Short trick to calculate E and r : In the closed circuit of a cell having emf E and D YG U internal resistance r. If external resistance changes from R1 to R2 then current changes from i1 to i2 and potential difference changes from V1 to V2. By using following relations we can find the value of E and r. E Note i R i R i1 i 2 ( R1  R 2 ) r   2 2 1 1 i 2  i1  i1  i 2  V2  V1    i1  i 2 :  When the cell is charging i.e. current is given to the cell then E = V – ir and E < V. + V– U i ST (2) Open circuit and short circuit E, r Open circuit Short circuit R C D A B E, r (i) Current through the circuit i = 0 R=0 E, r (i) Maximum current (called short circuit current) flows momentarily isc  (ii) Potential difference between A and B, VAB (ii) Potential difference V = 0 E r 32 Current Electricity =E (iii) Potential difference between C and D, VCD = 0 Note :  Above information’s can be summarized by the following graph 60 V Vmax =E; i = 0 imax =E/r ; V = 0 E3 i Concepts It is a common misconception that “current in the circuit will be maximum when power consumed by the load is maximum.” ID  Actually current i  E /(R  r) is maximum (= E/r) when R = min = 0 with PL  (E / r)2  0  0 min. while U power consumed by the load E2R/(R + r)2 is maximum (= E2/4r) when R = r and i  (E / 2r)  max(  E / r). Emf is independent of the resistance of the circuit and depends upon the nature of electrolyte of the cell while potential difference depends upon the resistance between the two points of the circuit and current flowing through the circuit.  Emf is a cause and potential difference is an effect.  Whenever a cell or battery is present in a branch there must be some resistance (internal or external or both) present in that branch. In practical situation it always happen because we can never have an ideal cell or battery with zero resistance. U Example s D YG  Example: 49 A new flashlight cell of emf 1.5 volts gives a current of 15 amps, when connected directly to an ammeter of resistance 0.04 . The internal resistance of cell is ST (a) 0.04  By using i  Solution : (b) Example: 50 (b) 0.06  (c) 0.10  (d) 10  1.5 E  15   r = 0.06  0.04  r Rr For a cell, the terminal potential difference is 2.2 V when the circuit is open and reduces to 1.8 V, when the cell is connected across a resistance, R = 5. The internal resistance of the cell is [CBSE PMT 2002] (a) Solution : (a) 10  9 (b) 9  10 In open circuit, E = V = 2.2 V, E   2.2   1  5 So internal resistance, r    1  R   V 1. 8     (c) 11  9 (d) 5  9 In close circuit, V = 1.8 V, R = 5  r 10  9 Current Electricity 33 The internal resistance of a cell of emf 2V is 0.1 . It’s connected to a resistance of 3.9 . The voltage across the cell will be (a) 0.5 volt (c) 1.95 volt When the resistance of 2  is connected across the terminal of the cell, the current is 0.5 amp. When the resistance is increased to 5 , the current is 0.25 amp. The emf of the cell is [MP PMT 2000] By using E  Solution : (b) (b) 1.5 volt (d) 2.5 volt i1 i2 0.5  0.25 (R 1  R 2 )  (2  5)  1.5 volt (i2  i1 ) (0.25  0.5) isc  Solution : (c) (b) 2 ohm 1.5 E  3  r = 0.5  r r ID A primary cell has an emf of 1.5 volts, when short-circuited it gives a current of 3 amperes. The internal resistance of the cell is (a) 4.5 ohm (c) 0.5 ohm (d) 1/4.5 ohm A battery of internal resistance 4  is connected to the network of resistances as shown. In U Example: 54 (c) 2.0 volt E3 (a) 1.0 volt Example: 53 (d) 2 volt E  2  By using r    1  R  0. 1    1   3.9  V  1.95 volt V  V  Solution : (c) Example: 52 (b) 1.9 volt 60 Example: 51 order to give the maximum power to the network, the value of R (in ) should be D YG (a) 4/9 R (b) 8/9 R 6R R E R R (c) 2 4R (d) 18 The equivalent circuit becomes a balanced wheatstone bridge Solution : (c) U R ST 2R R 2R 6R 3R 6R 2R 4R 2R 4R  4R 6R  4R 4 For maximum power transfer, external resistance should be equal to internal resistance of source  3R  6R (R  2 R)(2 R  4 R)  4 or R = 2  4 i.e. 3R  6R (R  2 R)  (2 R  4 R) Example: 55 A torch bulb rated as 4.5 W, 1.5 V is connected as shown in the figure. The emf of the cell needed to make the bulb glow at full intensity is 4.5 W, 1.5 V (a) 4.5 V (b) 1.5 V 1 (c) 2.67 V E (r = 2.67) 34 Current Electricity (d) 13.5 V Solution : (d) When bulb glows with full intensity, potential difference across it is 1.5 V. So current through the bulb and resistance of 1 are 3 A and 1.5 A respectively. So main current from the cell i = 3 + 1.5 = 4.5 A. By using E  V  iR  E = 1.5 + 4.5  2.67 = 13.5 V. 60 Tricky Example: 7 Potential difference across the terminals of the battery shown in figure is (r = internal resistance of battery) r =1 E3 10 V 4 (a) 8 V (b) 10 V (c) 6 V (d) ID Solution : (d) Battery is short circuited so potential difference is zero. Group of cell is called a battery. U Grouping of cell. D YG (1) Series grouping : In series grouping anode of one cell is connected to cathode of other cell and so on. (i) n identical cells are connected in series (a) Equivalent emf of the combination Eeq  nE (b) Equivalent internal resistance req  nr E1, r1 nE (c) Main current = Current from each cell  i  R  nr U (d) Potential difference across external resistance V  iR ST (e) Potential difference across each cell V '  E2, r2 E3, r3 En, rn i V n R 2  nE  (f) Power dissipated in the circuit P   .R  R  nr   E2   (g) Condition for maximum power R  nr and Pmax  n    4r  (h) This type of combination is used when nr E2) Ze Current Electricity 35 (a) Equivalent emf E eq  E1  E 2 E eq (b) Current i  R  req each cell (c) in the above circuit cell 1 is discharging so it’s equation is E1  V1  ir1  V1  E1  ir1 and cell 2 is charging so it’s equation E3 (c) Potential difference across V1  E1  ir1 and V2  E 2  ir2 E1  E 2 R  req 60 (b) Current i  (a) Equivalent emf Eeq = E1 – E2 E 2  V2  ir2  V2  E 2  ir2 ID (2) Parallel grouping : In parallel grouping all anodes are connected at one point and all cathode are connected together at other point. E, r (i) If n identical cells are connected in parallel (a) Equivalent emf Eeq = E E, r i U (b) Equivalent internal resistance R eq  r / n E, r R E R r/n (d) P.d. across external resistance = p.d. across each cell = V = iR D YG (c) Main current i  2 E   (f) Power dissipated in the circuit P   .R R r / n    2 E   (h) This type of combination is used (g) Condition for max power R  r / n and Pmax  n    4r  when nr >> R (ii) If non-identical cells are connected in parallel : If cells are connected with right polarity as shown below then U (e) Current from each cell i'  ST (a) Equivalent emf E eq  (b) Main current i  i n E1 r2  E 2 r1 r1  r2 i1 E eq r  R eq i E  iR E  iR (c) Current from each cell i1  1 and i2  2 r2 r1 Note :  In E1, r1 i2 E2, r2 R this combination if cell’s are connected with reversed polarity as shown in figure then : Equivalent emf E eq  E1 r2  E 2 r1 r1  r2 i i1 E1,r1 i2 E2, r2 R 36 Current Electricity (3) Mixed Grouping : If n identical cell’s are connected in a row and such m row’s are connected in parallel as shown. (i) Equivalent emf of the combination E eq  nE 1 nr m (iv) Potential difference across load V  iR (vi) Current from each cell i '  i n (viii) Total number of cell = mn 2 i m V R E2 nr and Pmax  (mn ) 4r m U (vii) Condition for maximum power R  V n E, r ID (v) Potential difference across each cell V '  n 2 E3 nE mnE (iii) Main current flowing through the load i   nr mR  nr R m E, r 60 (ii) Equivalent internal resistance of the combination req  1 E, r  D YG Concepts In series grouping of cell’s their emf’s are additive or subtractive while their internal resistances are always additive. If dissimilar plates of cells are connected together their emf’s are added to each other while if their similar plates are connected together their emf’s are subtractive. E1 E1 E2 Eeq  E1  E2 & req  r1  r2 E2 E eq  E1  E 2 (E1  E 2 ) & req  r1  r2 In series grouping of identical cells. If one cell is wrongly connected then it will cancel out the effect of two cells e.g. If in the combination of n identical cells (each having emf E and internal resistance r) if x cell are wrongly connected then equivalent emf E eq  (n  2 x ) E and equivalent internal resistance req  nr.  In parallel grouping of two identical cell having no internal resistance ST U   R E R E eq  E E E eq  0 E E When two cell’s of different emf and no internal resistance are connected in parallel then equivalent emf is indeterminate, note that connecting a wire with a cell but with no resistance is equivalent to short R circuiting. Therefore the total current that will be flowing will be infinity. E1 E2 Current Electricity 37 Example s A group of N cells whose emf varies directly with the internal resistance as per the equation EN = 1.5 rN are connected as shown in the following figure. The current i in the 2 circuit is [KCET 2003] 1 (a) 0.51 amp r2 r1 (b) 5.1 amp rN (c) 0.15 amp i Solution : (d) req  1.5 r1  1.5 r2  1.5 r3 ....... = 1.5 amp r1  r2  r3 ...... 4 Two batteries A and B each of emf 2 volt are connected in series to external resistance R = 1 . Internal resistance of A is 1.9  and that of B is 0.9 , what is the potential difference between the terminals of battery A B A (b) 3.8 V (c) 0 Solution : (c) i  D YG (d) None of these U (a) 2 V Example: 58 r4 ID Example: 57 E eq 3 r3 E3 N (d) 1.5 amp 60 Example: 56 R E1  E 2 22 4  . Hence V A  E A  irA R  r1  r2 1  1.9  0.9 3.8 2 4 1.9  0 3.8 In a mixed grouping of identical cells 5 rows are connected in parallel by each row contains 10 cell. This combination send a current i through an external resistance of 20 . If the emf and internal resistance of each cell is 1.5 volt and 1  respectively then the value of i is (a) 0.14 No. of cells in a row n = 10; U Solution : (d) (d) 0.68 No. of such rows m = 5 To get maximum current in a resistance of 3  one can use n rows of m cells connected in parallel. If the total no. of cells is 24 and the internal resistance of a cell is 0.5 then (a) m = 12, n = 2 Solution : (a) (c) 0.75 nE 10  1.5 15 = 0.68 amp   nr   10  1  22   R    20   m  5   ST i Example: 59 (b) 0.25 (b) m = 8, n = 4 (c) m = 2, n = 12 In this question R = 3, mn = 24, r = 0.5 and R  (d) m = 6, n = 4 mr. On putting the values we get n = 2 n and m = 12. Example: 60 100 cells each of emf 5V and internal resistance 1  are to be arranged so as to produce maximum current in a 25  resistance. Each row contains equal number of cells. The number of rows should be [MP PMT 1997] 38 Current Electricity (a) 2 Solution : (a) (b) 4 (c) 5 (d) 100 Total no. of cells, = mn = 100 …….. (i) Current will be maximum when R  n 1 nr ; 25   n = 25 m m m …….. (ii) ST U D YG U ID E3 60 From equation (i) and (ii) n = 50 and m = 2 Current Electricity 37 Example: 61 In the adjoining circuit, the battery E1 has as emf of 12 volt and zero internal resistance, while the battery E has an emf of 2 volt. If the galvanometer reads zero, then the value of 500 O resistance X ohm is [NCERT 1990] A B G (a) 10 (c) 500 X D In this condition E3 For zero deflection in galvanometer the potential different across X should be E = 2V Solution : (b) 12 X 2 500  X  X = 100  (a) Zero (b) 2 A from A to B ID In the circuit shown here E1 = E2 = E3 = 2V and R1 = R2 = 4 . The current flowing between point A and B through battery E2 is E2 R2 D YG The equivalent circuit can be drawn as since E1 & E3 are parallely connected 2V A 7 A from a to b through e 3 7 (b) A from b and a through e 3 (c) 1.0 A from b to a through e 1 a 10 V U 2 e d b 4V c 3 (d) 1.0 A from a to b through e 10  4  1 A from a to b via e 3  2 1 Figure represents a part of the closed circuit. The potential difference between points A and B (VA – VB) is ST Example: 64 B The magnitude and direction of the current in the circuit shown will be (a) Solution : (d) R = (R1 ||R2) = 2 2V 22 So current i   2 Amp from A to B. 2 Example: 63 B E3 U (d) None of these R1 E1 A (c) 2 A from B to A Solution : (b) C P (d) 200 Example: 62 E 60 E1 (b) 100 Current i  (a) + 9 V 2A (b) – 9 V 1 2 A 3V B (c) + 3 V (d) + 6 V Solution : (a) The given part of a closed circuit can be redrawn as follows. It should be remember that product of current and resistance can be treated as an imaginary cell having emf = iR. 4V A 3V 2V B  + A 9V – B 38 Current Electricity  7 Hence VA – VB = +9 V In the circuit shown below the cells E1 and E2 have emf’s 4 V and 8 V and internal resistance 0.5 ohm and 1 ohm respectively. Then the potential difference across cell E1 and E2 will be E1 4.5 (a) 3.75 V, 7.5 V (b) 4.25 V, 7.5 V E2 60 Example: 65 6 E3 (c) 3.75 V, 3.5 V (d) 4.25 V, 4.25 V In the given circuit diagram external resistance R  Solution : (b) 3 E 2  E1 84 1   amp. R  req 6.5  0.5  0.5 2 ID current through the circuit i  36  4.5  6.5 . Hence main 36 1  0.5  V1 = 4.25 volt 2 1 Cell 2 is discharging so from it’s emf equation E2 = V2 + ir2  8  V2   1  V2 = 7.5 volt 2 A wire of length L and 3 identical cells of negligible internal resistances are connected in series. Due to this current, the temperature of the wire is raised by T in time t. A number N of similar cells is now connected in series with a wire of the same material and crosssection but of length 2L. The temperature of wire is raised by same amount T in the same time t. The value of N is [IIT-JEE (Screening) 2001] (a) 4 (b) 6 (c) 8 (d) 9 Heat = mST = i2Rt Case I : Length (L)  Resistance = R and mass = m Case II : Length (2L)  Resistance = 2R and mass = 2m m 1 S 1 T1 i2 R t i 2 Rt mS T (3 E) 2 (NE ) 2  12 1 1  21 So   i1  i2  N=6  m 2 S 2 T2 2mS T i2 2 Rt 12 2R i2 r2 t 2 Solution : (b) D YG Example: 66 U Cell 1 is charging so from it’s emf equation E1 = V1 – ir1  4  V1  U Tricky Example: 8 ST n identical cells, each of emf E and internal resistance r, are joined in series to form a closed circuit. The potential difference across any one cell is (a) Zero Solution: (a) (b) E (c) E n n 1 (d)  E  n  nE E  nr r The equivalent circuit of one cell is shown in the figure. Potential difference across i – + E the cell  V A  VB   E  ir   E .r  0 E A r B r Current in the circuit i  Kirchoff’s Laws. (1) Kirchoff’s first law : This law is also known as junction rule or current law (KCL). According to it the algebraic sum of currents meeting at a junction is zero i.e. i = 0. i1 i4 i2 i3 Current Electricity 39 In a circuit, at any junction the sum of the currents entering the junction must equal the sum of the currents leaving the junction. i1  i3  i2  i4 60 Here it is worthy to note that : (i) If a current comes out to be negative, actual direction of current at the junction is opposite to that assumed, i  i1  i2  0 can be satisfied only if at least one current is negative, i.e. leaving the junction. (ii) This law is simply a statement of “conservation of charge” as if current reaching a junction is not equal to the current leaving the junction, charge will not be conserved. Note :  E3 This law is also applicable to a capacitor through the concept of displacement current treating the resistance of capacitor to be zero during charging or discharging and infinite in steady state as shown in figure. – +C i Dischargin g i i1 R Steady state i i1 – +C R i2 i2 i1 = i + i2 i2 i = i2 (B) (C) D YG (A) i1 = 0 R U i = i1 + i2 – +C ID Charging (2) Kirchoff’s second law : This law is also known as loop rule or voltage law (KVL) and according to it “the algebraic sum of the changes in potential in complete traversal of a mesh (closed loop) is zero”, i.e. V = 0 e.g. In the following closed loop. R2 B R1 i1 i2 A – i1R1 + i2R2 – E1 – i3R3 + E2 + E3 – i4R4 = 0 i4 U R4 C + E1 – D i3 R3 E3 – + E2 ST Here it is worthy to note that : (i) This law represents “conservation of energy” as if the sum of potential changes around a closed loop is not zero, unlimited energy could be gained by repeatedly carrying a charge around a loop. (ii) If there are n meshes in a circuit, the number of independent equations in accordance with loop rule will be (n – 1). (3) Sign convention for the application of Kirchoff’s law : For the application of Kirchoff’s laws following sign convention are to be considered (i) The change in potential in traversing a resistance in the direction of current is – iR while in the opposite direction +iR R A i – iR B A i R + iR B 40 Current Electricity (ii) The change in potential in traversing an emf source from negative to positive terminal A E i B A E i B +E E3 –E 60 is +E while in the opposite direction – E irrespective of the direction of current in the circuit. ID (iii) The change in potential in traversing a capacitor from the negative terminal to the q q positive terminal is  while in opposite direction . C C C A – B + q  q C A –  U C + q q B C D YG (iv) The change in voltage in traversing an inductor in the direction of current is  L while in opposite direction it is  L A i di dt di. dt L B L di dt A L i L B di dt (4) Guidelines to apply Kirchoff’s law ST U (i) Starting from the positive terminal of the battery having highest emf, distribute current at various junctions in the circuit in accordance with ‘junction rule’. It is not always easy to correctly guess the direction of current, no problem if one assumes the wrong direction. (ii) After assuming current in each branch, we pick a point and begin to walk (mentally) around a closed loop. As we traverse each resistor, capacitor, inductor or battery we must write down, the voltage change for that element according to the above sign convention. (iii) By applying KVL we get one equation but in order to solve the circuit we require as many equations as there are unknowns. So we select the required number of loops and apply Kirchhoff’s voltage law across each such loop. (iv) After solving the set of simultaneous equations, we obtain the numerical values of the assumed currents. If any of these values come out to be negative, it indicates that particular current is in the opposite direction from the assumed one. Current Electricity 41 Note :  The number of loops must be selected so that every element of the circuit must be included in at least one of the loops.  While traversing through a capacitor or battery we do not consider the direction of current. 60  While considering the voltage drop or gain across as inductor we always assume current to be in increasing function. ID E3 (5) Determination of equivalent resistance by Kirchoff’s method : This method is useful when we are not able to identify any two resistances in series or in parallel. It is based on the two Kirchhoff’s laws. The method may be described in the following guideline. (i) Assume an imaginary battery of emf E connected between the two terminals across which we have to calculate the equivalent resistance. (ii) Assume some value of current, say i, coming out of the battery and distribute it among each branch by applying Kirchhoff’s current law. (iii) Apply Kirchhoff’s voltage law to formulate as many equations as there are unknowns. It should be noted that at least one of the equations must include the assumed battery. E ratio which is the equivalent resistance of the i (iv) Solve the equations to determine U network. e.g. Suppose in the following network of 12 identical resistances, equivalent resistance between point A and C is to be calculated. B R D YG R E F R R R R A R C R R R H G U R R D According to the above guidelines we can solve this problem as follows ST Step (1) Step (2) B E F R R R R A B R R C R R R A R H R D E An imaginary battery of emf E is assumed across the terminals A and C i i R F i 2i H 4i R i R R G R E R 2i R i R i i R R 2i R 2i C R G i R 4i D E The current in each branch is distributed by assuming 4i current 42 Current Electricity coming out of the battery. 60 Step (3) Applying KVL along the loop including the nodes A, B, C and the battery E. Voltage equation is  2iR  iR  iR  2iR  E  0 Step (4) After solving the above equation, we get 6iR = E  equivalent resistance between E 6iR 3 A and C is R    R 4i 4i 2 Concepts Using Kirchoff’s law while dividing the current having a junction through different arms of a network, it will be same through different arms of same resistance if the end points of these arms are equilocated w.r.t. exit point for current in network and will be different through different arms if the end point of these arms are E3  not equilocated w.r.t. exit point for current of the network. e.g. In the following figure the current going in arms AB, AD and AL will be same because the location of end i B located C points B, D and L of these arms are symmetrically w.r.t. exit point N of the network. 2i 6i i i Example: 67 K U i N 6i 2i D YG Example s i i 2i M i L i D ID A 2i In the following circuit E1 = 4V, R1 = 2 [MP PET 2003] E1 E2 = 6V, R2 = 2 and R3 = 4. The current i1 is (a) 1.6 A (b) 1.8 A R1 i1 R2 i2 (c) 2.25 A R3 E2 U (d) 1 A For loop (1) 2i1  2(i1  i2 )  4  0  2i1  i2  2 …… (i) For loop (2) 4 i2  2(i1  i2 )  6  0  3i2  i1  3 …… (ii) ST Solution : (b) 2 4V i1 1 2 (i1 – i2) 2 i2 After solving equation (i) and (ii) we get i1  1.8 A and i2 i2 1.6 A 6V Example: 68 Determine the current in the following circuit 10 V i1 4 2 (a) 1 A (b) 2.5 A (c) 0.4 A (d) 3 A Solution : (a) 5V 3 Applying KVL in the given circuit we get 2i  10  5  3i  0  i  1 A Second method : Similar plates of the two batteries are connected together, so the net emf = 10 – 5 = 5V Current Electricity 43 A (a) 5 A (b) 0 A 6 15 V 30 V D (d) 4 A E3 The current in the circuit are assumed as shown in the fig.6 i1 B 3 i1 – i2 C A Applying KVL along the loop ABDA, we get – 6i1 – 3 i2 + 15 = 0 or 2i1 + i2 = 5 …… (i) 30 3 15 Applying KVL along the loop BCDB, we get V V i2 – 3(i1 – i2) – 30 + 3i2 = 0 or – i1 + 2i2 = 10 …… (ii) i1 D Solving equation (i) and (ii) for i2, we get i2 = 5 A The figure shows a network of currents. The magnitude of current is shown here. The current i will be [MP PMT 1995] 15 A ID Example: 70 U (a) 3 A (b) 13 A 3A i 5A D YG (c) 23 A (d) – 3 A Solution : (c) i  15  3  5  23 A Example: 71 Consider the circuit shown in the figure. The current i3 is equal to 54 6V (b) 3 amp i3 (c) – 3 amp 8V U (d) – 5/6 amp 12 V Suppose current through different paths of the circuit is as follows. ST After applying KVL for loop (1) and loop (2) We get 28 i1  6  8  i1   Hence i3  i1  i2   28 1 A 2 54 i2  6  12  i2   and Example: 72 [AMU 1995] 28 (a) 5 amp Solution : (d) C 3 (c) 3 A Solution : (a) 3 B 60 Example: 69 Total resistance in the circuit = 2 + 3 = 5 V 5  i   1A R 5 In the circuit shown in figure, find the current through the branch BD 54 6V 1 2 i3 1 A 3 12 V 8V 5 A 6 A part of a circuit in steady state along with the current flowing in the branches, with value of each resistance is shown in figure. What will be the energy stored in the capacitor C0 3 2A 1A 3 A 5 4 F D i1 1 i3 i2 2A 1 B 3 2 C 4 44 Current Electricity (a) 6  10–4 J (b) 8  10–4 J (c) 16  10–4 J Solution : (b) 60 (d) Zero Applying Kirchhoff’s first law at junctions A and B respectively we have 2 + 1 – i1 = 0 i.e., i1 = 3A E3 and i2 + 1 – 2 – 0 = 0 i.e., i2 = 1A Now applying Kirchhoff’s second law to the mesh ADCBA treating capacitor as a seat of emf V in open circuit – 3  5 – 3  1 – 1  2 + V = 0 i.e. V(= VA – VB) = 20 V Example: 73 1 1 CV 2  (4  10 6 )  (20 ) 2  8  10  4 J 2 2 ID So, energy stored in the capacitor U  In the following circuit the potential difference between P and Q is P U (a) 15 V Q 2A 15V D YG (b) 10 V R 5 (c) 5 V E1 (d) 2.5 V Solution : (c) By using KVL E2 5  2  VPQ  15  0  VPQ = 5V Tricky Example: 9 ST U As the switch S is closed in the circuit shown in figure, current passed through it is 20 V 2 4 5V B A 2 S (a) 4.5 A (b) 6.0 A (c) 3.0 A (d) Zero Solution : (a) Let V be the potential of the junction as shown in figure. Applying junction law, we have 2 20 V 4 or 20  V 5  V V  0   or 40 – 2V + 5 – V = 2V 2 4 2 or 5V = 45  V = 9V  i3  V  4.5 A 2 5V A i1 i2 2 i3 0V B Current Electricity 45 Different Measuring Instruments. (1) Galvanometer : It is an instrument used to detect small current passing through it by showing deflection. Galvanometers are of different types e.g. moving coil galvanometer, moving (i) It’s symbol : galvanometer. 60 magnet galvanometer, hot wire galvanometer. In dc circuit usually moving coil galvanometer are used. ; where G is the total internal resistance of the G (ii) Principle : In case of moving coil galvanometer deflection is directly proportional to E3 the current that passes through it i.e. i  θ. (iii) Full scale deflection current : The current required for full scale deflection in a galvanometer is called full scale deflection current and is represented by ig. (a) To protect galvanometer burning Demerits of shunt the coil from sensitivity of galvanometer. K S D YG (b) It can be used to convert any galvanometer into ammeter of desired range. G Shunt resistance decreases the U Merits of shunt ID (iv) Shunt : The small resistance connected in parallel to galvanometer coil, in order to control current flowing through the galvanometer is known as shunt. (2) Ammeter : It is a device used to measure current and is always connected in series with the ‘element’ through which current is to be measured. R (i) The reading of an ammeter is always lesser than actual current in the circuit. i A U (ii) Smaller the resistance of an ammeter more accurate will + ST be its reading. An ammeter is said to be ideal if its resistance r is zero. V – (iii) Conversion of galvanometer into ammeter : A galvanometer may be converted into an ammeter by connecting a low resistance (called shunt S) in parallel to the galvanometer G as shown in figure. (a) Equivalent resistance of the combination  GS GS (b) G and S are parallel to each other hence both will have equal potential difference i.e. ig G  (i  ig )S ; which gives Required shunt S  ig (i  i g ) G S i i – ig ig Ammete r G 46 Current Electricity (c) To pass nth part of main current (i.e. ig  S  i ) through the galvanometer, required shunt n G. ( n  1) difference is to be measured. (i) The reading of a voltmeter is always lesser than true value. 60 (3) Voltmeter : It is a device used to measure potential difference and is always put in parallel with the ‘circuit element’ across which potential V R i – E3 + V (ii) Greater the resistance of voltmeter, more accurate will be its reading. A voltmeter is said to be ideal if its resistance is infinite, i.e., it draws no current from the circuit element for its operation. ID (iii) Conversion of galvanometer into voltmeter : A galvanometer may be converted into a voltmeter by connecting a large resistance R in series with the galvanometer as shown in the figure. R G U (a) Equivalent resistance of the combination = G + R V = ig (G + R); which gives Required series resistance R  V  V G   1  G V  ig  g  V – Vg V D YG (b) According to ohm’s law Vg = igG ig (c) If nth part of applied voltage appeared across galvanometer (i.e. Vg  V ) then required n series resistance R  ( n  1) G. (4) Wheatstone bridge : Wheatstone bridge is an arrangement of four resistance which ST U can be used to measure one of them in terms of rest. Here arms AB and BC are called ratio arm and arms AC and BD are called conjugate arms (i) Balanced bridge : The bridge is said to be balanced when deflection in galvanometer is zero i.e. no current flows through the galvanometer or in other words VB = VD. In the balanced P R  condition , on mutually changing the position of cell and Q S B P A Q K1 C G R + – S D K2 galvanometer this condition will not change. (ii) Unbalanced bridge : If the bridge is not balanced current will flow from D to B if VD > VB i.e. (V A  VD )  (V A  VB ) which gives PS > RQ. Current Electricity 47 (iii) Applications of wheatstone bridge : Meter bridge, post office box and Carey Foster bridge are instruments based on the principle of wheatstone bridge and are used to measure unknown resistance. 60 (5) Meter bridge : In case of meter bridge, the resistance wire AC is 100 cm long. Varying the position of tapping point B, bridge is balanced. If in balanced position of bridge AB = l, BC P R Q (100  l) (100  l)  (100 – l) so that. Also  S R  Q S l P l S R.B. G P A Q B l cm E3 R C (100 – l) cm K ID E Concepts   Wheatstone bridge is most sensitive if all the arms of bridge have equal resistances i.e. P = Q = R = S  In Wheatstone bridge to avoid inductive effects the battery key should be pressed first and the galvanometer key afterwards.  The measurement of resistance by Wheatstone bridge is not affected by the internal resistance of the cell. D YG U If the temperature of the conductor placed in the right gap of metre bridge is increased, then the balancing length decreases and the jockey moves towards left. Example s Example: 74 The scale of a galvanometer of resistance 100  contains 25 divisions. It gives a deflection of one division on passing a current of 4  10–4 A. The resistance in ohms to be added to it, so that it may become a voltmeter of range 2.5 volt is (b) 150 U (a) 100 (c) 250 Current sensitivity of galvanometer = 4  10 Solution : (b) –4 (d) 300 Amp/div. ST So full scale deflection current (ig) = Current sensitivity  Total number of division = 4  10–4  25 = 10–2 A To convert galvanometer in V 2.5 R G   100  150  ig 10  2 Example: 75 Solution : (c) to voltmeter, resistance to be put in series is A galvanometer, having a resistance of 50  gives a full scale deflection for a current of 0.05 A. the length in meter of a resistance wire of area of cross-section 2.97  10–2 cm2 that can be used to convert the galvanometer into an ammeter which can read a maximum of 5A current is : (Specific resistance of the wire = 5  10–7 m) (a) 9 (b) 6 (c) 3 (d) 1.5 Given G = 50 , ig = 0.05 Amp., i = 5A, A = 2.97  10–2 cm2 and  = 5  10–7-m G.ig Gi g Gi g A i G l 1 By using  S on putting values l = 3 m.    l ig S (i  ig ) A (i  ig ) (i  ig ) 48 Current Electricity Example: 76 100 mA current gives a full scale deflection in a galvanometer of resistance 2 . The resistance connected with the galvanometer to convert it into a voltmeter of 5 V range is [KCET 2002; UPSEAT 1998; MNR 1994 Similar to MP PMT 1999] (a) 98  V 5 G   2  50  2  48 . Ig 100  10  3 A milliammeter of range 10 mA has a coil of resistance 1 . To use it as voltmeter of range 10 volt, the resistance that must be connected in series with it will be (a) 999  Solution : (a) Example: 78 By using R  (b) 99  V G ig R (c) 1000  10 10  10 3  1  999  (d) None of these In the following figure ammeter and voltmeter reads 2 amp and 120 volt respectively. Resistance of voltmeter is ID (b) 200  Y V U (c) 300  (d) 400  75  X A (a) 100  Let resistance of voltmeter be RV. Equivalent resistance between X and Y is 75 R V R XY  75  R V D YG Solution : (c) (d) 48  60 Example: 77 R (c) 80  E3 Solution : (d) (b) 52  Reading of voltmeter = potential difference across X and Y = 120 = i  RXY = 2  75 R V  75  R V RV = 300 Example: 79 In the circuit shown in figure, the voltmeter reading would be (a) Zero 2 1 U (b) 0.5 volt A V (c) 1 volt + ST (d) 2 volt – 3V Solution : (a) Ammeter has no resistance so there will be no potential difference across it, hence reading of voltmeter is zero. Example: 80 Voltmeters V1 and V2 are connected in series across a d.c. line. V1reads 80 V and has a per volt resistance of 200 , V2 has a total resistance of 32 k. The line voltage is (a) 120 V Solution : (d) (b) 160 V (c) 220 V (d) 240 V Resistance of voltmeter V1 is R1 = 200  80 = 16000  and resistance of voltmeter V2 is R2 = 32000  Current Electricity 49  R' By using relation V '    R eq    V ; where V = potential difference across any resistance R in a   R1 R2 series grouping. V1 So for voltmeter V1 potential difference across it is (b) 0.0018  By using i ig 1 (d) 0.12  4 10 0.018   S = 0.002  1 S 1 S In meter bridge the balancing length from left and when standard resistance of 1  is in right gas is found to be 20 cm. The value of unknown resistance is (a) 0.25  Solution: (a) (c) 0.002  E3 Example: 82 – V The resistance of 1 A ammeter is 0.018 . To convert it into 10 A ammeter, the shunt resistance required will be (a) 0.18  Solution : (c) + (b) 0.4  ID Example: 81  .V  V = 240 V  60  R1 80    R1  R 2 V2 80 V (c) 0.5  (d) 4  20 r X  , r- resistance of wire per cm, XR 80 r R = 1 The condition of wheatstone bridge gives Example: 83 X  20 1  R   1  0.25  80 4 D YG  P = 20 r 20 cm Q = 80 r 80 cm A galvanometer having a resistance of 8  is shunted by a wire of resistance 2 . If the total current is 1 amp, the part of it passing through the shunt will be (a) 0.25 amp (b) 0.8 amp (c) 0.2 amp (d) 0.5 amp Fraction of current passing through the galvanometer U Solution: (b) U X unknown resistance ig i  ig 2 S   0.2 or i 28 S G ST So fraction of current passing through the shunt ig is 1  1  0. 2  0. 8 amp i i Example: 84 A moving coil galvanometer is converted into an ammeter reading upto 0.03 A by connecting a shunt of resistance 4r across it and into an ammeter reading upto 0.06 A when a shunt of resistance r connected across it. What is the maximum current which can be through this galvanometer if no shunt is used [MP PMT 1996] (a) 0.01 A Solution: (b) (b) 0.02 A ig For ammeter, S  G (i  ig ) So ig G  (0. 03  ig )4 r …… (i) (c) 0.03 A (d) 0.04 A  ig G  (i  ig )S and ig G  (0. 06  ig )r …… (ii) 50 Current Electricity 1 Dividing equation (i) by (ii) (0.03  ig ) 4 0.06  ig  0.06  ig  0.12  4 ig  3ig = 0.06  ig = 0.02 A Tricky Example: 10 R A V (a) Exactly 10 ohm E3 [JIPMER 1999] 60 The ammeter A reads 2 A and the voltmeter V reads 20 V. The value of resistance R is (b) Less than 10 ohm (c) More than 10 ohm (d) We cannot definitely say ID If current goes through the resistance R is i then iR = 20 volt  R  Solution: (c) Potentiometer. U 2A so R > 10. 20. Since i < i D YG Potentiometer is a device mainly used to measure emf of a given cell and to compare emf’s of cells. It is also used to measure internal resistance of a given cell. (1) Superiority of potentiometer over voltmeter : An ordinary voltmeter cannot measure the emf accurately because it does draw some current to show the deflection. As per definition of emf, it is the potential difference when a cell is in open circuit or no current through the cell. Therefore voltmeter can only measure terminal voltage of a give n cell. U Potentiometer is based on no deflection method. When the potentiometer gives zero deflection, it does not draw any current from the cell or the circuit i.e. potentiometer is effectively an ideal instrument of infinite resistance for measuring the potential difference. (2) Circuit diagram : Potentiometer consists of a long resistive wire AB of length L (about ST 6m to 10 m long) made up of mangnine or constantan. A battery of known voltage e and internal resistance r called supplier battery or driver cell. Connection of these two forms primary circuit. One terminal of another cell (whose emf E is to be measured) is connected at one end of the main circuit and the other terminal at any point on the resistive wire through a galvanometer G. This forms the secondary circuit. Other details are as follows K Rh e, r J = Jockey K = Key R = Resistance of potentiometer wire,  = Specific resistance of potentiometer wire. Primar y circuit Secondar y circuit J A B E G Current Electricity 51 Rh = Variable resistance which controls the current through the wire AB (3) Points to be remember (i) The specific resistance () of potentiometer wire must be high but its temperature coefficient of resistance () must be low. 60 (ii) All higher potential points (terminals) of primary and secondary circuits must be connected together at point A and all lower potential points must be connected to point B or jockey. (iii) The value of known potential difference must be greater than the value of unknown E3 potential difference to be measured. (iv) The potential gradient must remain constant. For this the current in the primary circuit must remain constant and the jockey must not be slided in contact with the wire. ID (v) The diameter of potentiometer wire must be uniform everywhere. (4) Potential gradient (x) : Potential difference (or fall in potential) per unit length of x is called potential gradient V iR iρ e R.    L L A (R  Rh  r) L i.e. x V volt L m where   e .R. V  iR    R  Rh  r  So U wire D YG (i) Potential gradient directly depends upon (a) The resistance per unit length (R/L) of potentiometer wire. (b) The radius of potentiometer wire (i.e. Area of cross-section) (c) The specific resistance of the material of potentiometer wire (i.e. ) (d) The current flowing through potentiometer wire (i) (ii) x indirectly depends upon U (a) The emf of battery in the primary circuit (i.e. e) (b) The resistance of rheostat in the primary circuit (i.e. Rh) ST Note :  When potential difference V is constant then x1 L  2 x2 L1  Two different wire are connected in series to form a potentiometer wire then x1 R L  1. 2 x2 R 2 L1  If the length of a potentiometer wire and potential difference across it’s ends are kept constant and if it’s diameter is changed from d1 d2 then potential gradient remains unchanged.  The value of x does not change with any change effected in the secondary circuit. (5) Working : Suppose jocky is made to touch a point J on wire then potential difference between A and J will be V  xl Rh e, r K At this length (l) two potential difference are obtained l J1 A G E J J2 G G B 52 Current Electricity (i) V due to battery e and (ii) E due to unknown cell If V > E then current will flow in galvanometer circuit in one direction If V < E then current will flow in galvanometer circuit in opposite direction Note :  If V is constant then L  l    R V iR e .  l l l   L L  R  Rh  r  L L1 l  1 L 2 l2 E3 In balanced condition E  xl or E  xl  60 If V = E then no current will flow in galvanometer circuit this condition to known as null deflection position, length l is known as balancing length. ID (6) Standardization of potentiometer : The process of determining potential gradient experimentally is known as standardization of potentiometer. Let the balancing length for the standard emf E0 is l0 then E by the principle of potentiometer E0 = xl0  x  0 l0 e, r K Rh J B A U (7) Sensitivity of potentiometer : A potentiometer is said G E D YG to be more sensitive, if it measures a small potential difference more accurately. E0 (i) The sensitivity of potentiometer is assessed by its potential gradient. The sensitivity is inversely proportional to the potential gradient. (ii) In order to increase the sensitivity of potentiometer (a) The resistance in primary circuit will have to be decreased. (b) The length of potentiometer wire will have to be increased so that the length may be U measured more accuracy. (8) Difference between voltmeter and potentiometer ST Voltmeter Potentiometer (i) It’s resistance is high but finite Its resistance is high but infinite (ii ) It draws some current from source of emf It does not draw any current from the source of known emf (iii ) The potential difference measured by it is lesser than the actual potential difference The potential differenc