Chapter 1: Historical Background of I/O Psychology

CHAPTER 1: HISTORICAL BACKGROUND OF I/O PSYCHOLOGY INDUSTRIAL/ORGANIZATIONAL PSYCHOLOGY Blum and Naylor (1968) defined it as "simply the application or extension of psychological facts and principles to the problems concerning human beings operating within the context of business and industry" (p....

CHAPTER 1: HISTORICAL BACKGROUND OF I/O PSYCHOLOGY INDUSTRIAL/ORGANIZATIONAL PSYCHOLOGY Blum and Naylor (1968) defined it as "simply the application or extension of psychological facts and principles to the problems concerning human beings operating within the context of business and industry" (p. 4). ***Two Sides of I/O Psychology:*** 1\. **Science** I /O psychology is a [legitimate field of scientific inquiry, concerned with advancing knowledge about people at work.] As in any area of science, I /O psychologists pose questions to guide their investigation and then use scientific methods to obtain answers. Psychologists try to form the results of studies into meaningful patterns that will be useful in explaining behavior and to replicate findings to generalize about behavior. In this respect, I /O psychology is an academic discipline. 2\. **Practice** the professional side---is concerned with the application of knowledge to solve real problems in the world of work. I /O psychologists can use research findings to hire better employees, reduce absenteeism, improve communication, increase job satisfaction, and solve countless other problems. Most I /O psychologists feel a sense of kinship with both sides: science and practice. Accordingly, the education of I /O psychologists is founded on the **scientist--practitioner model**, which trains them in both scientific inquiry and practical application. - A model or framework for education in an academic discipline based on understanding the scientific principles and findings evidenced in the discipline and how they provide the basis for the professional practice. **Main work setting of Psychologist:** FIELDS OF I /O PSYCHOLOGY 1\. **Selection and Placement**. I /O psychologists who work in this field are concerned with [developing assessment methods for the selection, placement, and promotion of employees.] They are involved in [studying jobs and determining to what degree tests can predict performance in those jobs.] They are also [concerned with the placement of employees and identifying those jobs that are most compatible with an individual's skills and interests. ] 2\. **Training and Development**. This field is concerned with identifying employee skills that need to be enhanced to improve job performance. The areas of training include technical skills enhancement (e.g., computer operations), managerial development programs, and training of all employees to work together effectively. I /O psychologists who work in this field must design ways to determine whether training and development programs have been successful. **3. Performance Appraisal.** Performance appraisal is the process of identifying criteria or standards for determining how well employees are performing their jobs. I /O psychologists who work in this field are also concerned with determining the utility or value of job performance to the organization. They may be involved with measuring the performance of work teams, units within the organization, or the organization itself. 4\. **Organization Development**. Organization development is the process of analyzing the structure of an organization to maximize the satisfaction and effectiveness of individuals, work groups, and customers. Organizations grow and mature just as people do; thus the field of organization development is directed toward facilitating the organizational growth process. I /O psychologists who work in this field are sensitized to the wide array of factors that influence behavior in organizations. 5\. **Quality of Worklife**. I /O psychologists who work in this field are concerned with factors that contribute to a healthy and productive workforce. They may be involved in redesigning jobs to make them more meaningful and satisfying to the people who perform them. A high-quality worklife contributes to greater productivity of the organization and to the emotional health of the individual. 6**. Ergonomics**. Ergonomics is a multidisciplinary field that includes I /O psychologists. It is [concerned with designing tools, equipment, and machines that are compatible with human skills]. I /O psychologists who work in this field draw upon knowledge derived from physiology, industrial medicine, and perception to design work systems that humans can operate effectively. LICENSING OF PSYCHOLOGISTS **Licensure** The process by which a [professional practice is regulated by law to ensure quality standards are met to protect the public.] - limits those qualified to practice psychology as defined by state law. Each state has its own standards for licensure, and these are governed by regulatory boards. [A law that regulates both the title and practice of psychology] is called a **licensing law.** THE HISTORY OF I/O PSYCHOLOGY THE EARLY YEARS (1900 --1916) **W.L. Bryan (1904)** - The term industrial psychology was apparently used for the first time in Bryan's 1904 article. - This touched on having psychologists study "concrete activities and functions as they appear in everyday life." - He was only considered as a precursor The second major force in the evolution of the discipline came from the desire of industrial engineers to improve efficiency. By 1910 "industrial psychology" (the "organizational" appendage did not become official until 1970) was a legitimate specialty area of psychology. **Four founding figures of I/O Psychology** **1. Walter Dill Scott** - The Theory of Advertising (1903) dealt with suggestion and argument as means of influencing people. - The Psychology of Advertising (1908) aimed at improving human efficiency with such tactics as imitation, competition, loyalty, and concentration. - Scott had a substantial influence on increasing public awareness and the credibility of industrial psychology. **2. Frederick W. Taylor** - The ***Principles of Scientific Management:*** - However, it was charged that Taylor inhumanely exploited workers for higher wage and that great numbers of workers would be unemployed because fewer were needed **3. Lillian Moller Gilbreth** - She pioneered industrial management techniques that are still used like using films to analyze worker activity. - She was more concerned with the human aspects of time management and was among the first to recognize the effects of stress and fatigue on workers. - The mother of 12 children, Gilbreth combined a career and family and was called by a leading publication "a genius in the art of living." **4. Hugo Münsterberg** - His book Psychology and Industrial Efficiency (1913) was divided into three parts: selecting workers, designing work situations, and using psychology in sales - One of Münsterberg's most renowned studies involved determining what makes a safe trolley car operator. - Some writers consider Münsterberg the founder of industrial psychology. WORLD WAR I (1917--1918) World War I was a potent impetus to psychology's rise to respectability. **Robert Yerkes** was the psychologist most instrumental in involving psychology in the war. As president of the APA, he maneuvered the profession into assignments in the war effort. The APA made many proposals, including ways of screening recruits for mental deficiency and of assigning selected recruits to jobs in the army. **Army Alpha Test** is an intelligence test developed during World War I by I/O psychologists for the selection and placement of military personnel. **Army Beta Test** is a nonverbal intelligence test developed during World War I by I/O psychologists to assess illiterate recruits. BETWEEN THE WARS (1919--1940) Applied psychology emerged from World War I as a recognized discipline. **Psychological Corporation** - founded by **James Cattell** in 1921 was formed as a business corporation. - The purpose was to advance psychology and promote its usefulness to industry. - The corporation also served as a clearinghouse for information. - Over the years it has changed its early mission, and today it is one of the country's largest publishers of psychological tests **Hawthorne studies** - A series of research studies that began in the late 1920s at the Western Electric Company and ultimately refocused the interests of I/O psychologists on how work behavior manifests itself in an organizational context. **Hawthorne effect** - it is a positive change in behavior that occurs at the onset of an intervention followed by a gradual decline, often to the original level of the behavior prior to the intervention. The Hawthorne studies are considered to be the greatest single episode in the formation of industrial psychology This era in industrial psychology ended with the coincidental conclusion of the Hawthorne studies and the outbreak of World War II. Industrial psychologists were now faced with an immense task: helping to mobilize a nation for a two-continent war. WORLD WAR II (1941--1945) **Walter Bingham** chaired the advisory committee on classification of military personnel that had been formed in response to the army's need for classification and training. **Army General Classification Test (AGCT**) A test developed during World War II by I/O psychologists for the selection and placement of military personnel. **Office of Strategic Services (OSS)** The purpose of this testing program was to assess candidates for assignment to military intelligence units. TOWARD SPECIALIZATION (1946 --1963) In this era industrial psychology evolved into a legitimate field of scientific inquiry. The Division of Industrial Psychology of the APA was created in 1946 More colleges and universities began to offer courses in "industrial psychology," and graduate degrees (both M.S. and Ph.D.) were soon given. **Elton Mayo** is the founder of what became known as the human relations movement. **Engineering psychology** was a fusion of experimental and industrial psychology; organizational behavior was a mix of industrial psychology, social psychology, and sociology GOVERNMENT INTERVENTION (1964 --1993) Congress passed the **Civil Rights Act**, a far-reaching piece of legislation designed to reduce unfair discrimination against minorities. ***The significance of the law to i /o psychologists is explained as follows:*** For years I /O psychologists were given a relatively free rein to use a wide variety of psychological assessment devices to make employment decisions ***The discipline of i /o psychology now had to serve two ultimate authorities***: 1\. The first authority is what all disciplines must serve--- namely, to perform high-quality work, be it conducting scientific research or providing services to clients. 2\. The second authority added was government scrutiny and evaluation. I /O psychologists now had to accept the consequences of being legally accountable for their actions. Campbell (1990a) described the efforts of I /O psychologists to develop a test for the selection and classification of military personnel. This project involved many psychologists and took almost ten years to complete. Called "Project A, " it involved developing the **Armed Services Vocational Aptitude Battery (ASVAB**) THE INFORMATION AGE (1994 --PRESENT) By the late 1980s a new concept was established, the Internet. There has become a major shift in the way society functions, primarily revolving around the explosion in available information and how that information changes our lives. Murphy (1999) described how the turbulent changes faced by organizations (such as the need to change products or services frequently in response to changing market conditions) have led to the need for frequent changes in workers ' responsibilities, tasks, and work relationships Organizations are more likely to hire generalists (i.e., people who are intelligent, ambitious, and willing to adjust to the demands of change) rather than specialists (i.e., people hired to perform a single job with pre-established responsibilities). A "**job"** is the [traditional unit around which work is organized and the means by which individuals are linked to organizations]. Duties and responsibilities are bundled together on the basis of the tasks performed and capabilities of people assigned to the job (Ilgen & Pulakos, 1999). In the Information Age, tasks and duties are constantly changing, as are the skills needed to perform them. As such, a "job" as a useful and meaningful way to describe work performed is starting to erode. Information plays such a big role in the conduct of work today that many organizations have entire units or departments devoted to "IT" --- information technology. The head of that unit often holds the title of "CIO" --- chief information officer. Hesketh (2001) suggested that the objective of vocational psychology, which historically was devoted to helping people identify vocations suitable for them, should shift its emphasis to help workers cope with the stress caused by radical and rapid changes in the workplace. OVERVIEW The history of I /O psychology is rich and diverse. The field was born at the confluence of several forces, developed and grew through global conflict, and was woven into the societal fabric of which it is a part. Highhouse (1999) reported that the Great Depression in the 1930s led to the development of personnel counseling within organizations for helping employees solve personal problems. Questionable managerial support for such activity eventually led to its disappearance within the field of I /O psychology by the 1960s CROSS-CULTURAL I/O PSYCHOLOGY **Cross-cultural psychology** studies "similarities and differences in individual psychological and social functioning in various cultures and ethnic groups." (Kagitcibasi & Berry, 1989, p. 494). "In our business dealings, we will encounter people of different nations across real and virtual borders. In this world order understanding the impact of culture on various aspects of organizations and their practices will become more critical than even to increase synergy, productivity and welfare of the workforce within and across countries" THE MANDATE OF I/O PSYCHOLOGY I /O psychology is concerned with the worklives of people, and because those worklives are changing, so too is I /O psychology. All of our work must be conducted according to our professional code of ethics (American Psychological Association, 2002). Indeed, Colarelli (1998) asserted that across the full spectrum of work organizations in society, psychological interventions designed to solve social and organizational problems are underutilized