Anatomy & Physiology 2024 PDF

Because learning changes everything. ® ANATOMY & PHYSIOLOGY Dr. Mars Panganiban Dolar © 2023 McGraw Hill, LLC. All rights reserved. Authorized only for instructor use in the classroom....

Because learning changes everything. ® ANATOMY & PHYSIOLOGY Dr. Mars Panganiban Dolar © 2023 McGraw Hill, LLC. All rights reserved. Authorized only for instructor use in the classroom. No reproduction or further distribution permitted without the prior written consent of McGraw Hill, LLC.  Because learning changes everything. ® Anatomy and Physiology 2024 Dr. Mars Panganiban Dolar, RN Associate Professor II  COLLEGE OF MEDICINE ELEMENTARY CLERKSHIP HIGH SCHOOL INTERNSHIP COLLEGE OF NURSING OCCUPATIONAL HEALTH PHYSICIAN © McGraw Hill, LLC 3  Associate Professor II 2022 – Present Anatomy and Physiology Fundamentals in Nursing 2022 – Present Anatomy and Physiology; Pharmacology; Health Assessment; Medical Surgical Nursing; Fundamentals in Nursing © McGraw Hill, LLC 4  Emergency Room Physician Hemodialysis March 2019-July 2019 Physician May 2019- December 2019 Industrial Medicine Physician February 2020-June 2020 Company Physician 2019- present © McGraw Hill, LLC 5  Because learning changes everything. ® GOAL!!! 2028 Registed Nurse angel_mdolar Name: Age: Why nursing? Expections Anatomy and Physiology class © McGraw Hill, LLC 7  Lecture Outline The human body is a complex system. The structures in the body work in concert to maintain homeostasis, a balance in the body's internal environment. Access the text alternative for slide images. © McGraw Hill, LLC 8  1.1 Anatomy and Physiology Anatomy: scientific discipline that investigates the body’s structure, such as the size and shape of a bone. Physiology: scientific investigation of the processes or functions of living things. © McGraw Hill, LLC 9  Topics of Anatomy Gross: structures examined without a microscope. Regional: studied area by area. Systemic: studied system by system. Surface: external form used to visualize deeper structures. Structures so small they require aid of microscope. Cytology: cellular anatomy. Histology: study of tissues. © McGraw Hill, LLC 10  Anatomical Imaging X-ray: electromagnetic radiation moves through body and is exposed on photographic plate; creates radiograph. Ultrasound: sound waves pass into body and bounce back to receiver; visualized as a sonogram. Computed Tomography (CT): computer-analyzed x-ray images. Digital Subtraction Angiography (DSA): similar to a CT scan but uses a radiopaque dye to enhance differences in areas. Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI): radio waves directed to patient while under electromagnetic field; radio waves collected and analyzed by computer. Positron Emission Tomography (PET): radioactively labeled glucose usage by a tissue is detected; provides info on metabolic state. © McGraw Hill, LLC 11  X-ray Imaging Technique Clinical Examples X-ray This extremely shortwave electromagnetic radiation moves through the body, exposing a photographic plate to form a radiograph (RAY-dee-oh-graf). Radiographs create flat, two-dimensional (2D) image. Omikron/Science Source © McGraw Hill, LLC 12  Ultrasound Imaging Technique Clinical Examples Ultrasound Ultrasound uses high-frequency sound waves, which strike internal organs and bounce back to the receiver on the skin. Among other medical applications, ultrasound is commonly used to evaluate the condition of the fetus during pregnancy. Bernard Benoit/Science Photo Library/Science Source © McGraw Hill, LLC 13  Computed Tomography (CT) Imaging Technique Clinical Examples Computed Tomography (CT) Computed tomographic (TOH-moh-GRAF- ik) (CT) scans are computer-analyzed x-ray images (a). Some computers are able to take several scans short distances apart and stack the slices to produce a 3D image of a body part (b). RGB Ventures/SuperStock/Alamy Ribotsky D.P.M./Custom Stock Photo Medical Stock Photo © McGraw Hill, LLC 14  Digital Subtraction Angiography (D SA) Imaging Technique Clinical Examples Digital Subtraction Digital subtraction angiography (an-jee-OG- Angiography (DSA) rah-fee) (DSA) is one step beyond CT scanning. A radiopaque dye is injected into the blood, which allows for enhanced differences when compared to a noninjected scan. Living Art Enterprises, LLC/Science Source © McGraw Hill, LLC 15  Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI) Imaging Technique Clinical Examples Magnetic Resonance Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) Imaging (MRI) directs radio waves at a person lying inside a large electromagnetic field. An M RI is more effective at detecting some forms of cancer than a CT scan. MriMan/Shutterstock © McGraw Hill, LLC 16  Positron Emission Tomography (PET) Imaging Technique Clinical Examples Positron Emission Positron emission tomographic (PET) Tomography (PET) scans can identify the metabolic states of various tissues. This technique is particularly useful in analyzing the brain. Radiation pinpoints cells that are metabolically active. Science Source © McGraw Hill, LLC 17  Topics of Physiology Goals of studying physiology include how the body responds to stimuli and how it maintains stable internal conditions in a constantly changing environment. Considers operations at many levels. Cell physiology: examines processes in cells. Systemic physiology: functions of organ systems. Neurophysiology: focuses on the nervous system. Cardiovascular physiology: the heart and blood vessels. © McGraw Hill, LLC 18  Subjects That Encompass Both Anatomy and Physiology Anatomy and physiology are studied together because they are interwoven and changes in one will affect the other; structure and function are interdependent. Pathology: structural and functional changes caused by disease. Exercise Physiology: changes in structure and function caused by exercise. © McGraw Hill, LLC 19  1.2 Biomedical Research Shared characteristics between living things drive research. Single-celled bacteria = cell. Mammalian research furthers human surgery and medicine. Strict laws govern research to minimize suffering. Current knowledge is constantly being updated through research in anatomy and physiology. © McGraw Hill, LLC 20  1.3 Structural and Functional Organization of the Human Body 1 Chemical level: interaction of atoms and molecules Cell level: structural and functional unit of living organisms. Combinations of molecules for structures called organelles that carry out specific functions. Access the text alternative for slide images. © McGraw Hill, LLC 21  1.3 Structural and Functional Organization of the Human Body 2 Tissue level: group of similar cells and the materials surrounding them. Four tissue types – epithelial, connective, muscular, and nervous. Organ level: two or more tissues functioning together. Access the text alternative for slide images. © McGraw Hill, LLC 22  Major Organs of the Body Access the text alternative for slide images. © McGraw Hill, LLC 23  1.3 Structural and Functional Organization of the Human Body 3 (baby girl) BJI/Blue Jean Images/Getty Images Organ System level: group of organs functioning together. (The following slides present an overview of the human organ systems. Organism level: any living thing, whether composed of one cell or many. Access the text alternative for slide images. © McGraw Hill, LLC 24  Organ Systems of the Body 1 Integumentary System Provides protection, regulates temperature, prevents water loss, and helps produce vitamin D. Consists of skin, hair, nails, and sweat glands. Access the text alternative for slide images. © McGraw Hill, LLC 25  Organ Systems of the Body 2 Skeletal System Provides protection and support, allows body movements, produces blood cells, and stores minerals and fat. Consists of bones, associated cartilages, ligaments, and joints. Access the text alternative for slide images. © McGraw Hill, LLC 26  Organ Systems of the Body 3 Muscular System Produces body movements, maintains posture, and produces body heat. Consists of muscles attached to the skeleton by tendons. Access the text alternative for slide images. © McGraw Hill, LLC 27  Organ Systems of the Body 4 Nervous System A major regulatory system that detects sensations and controls movements, physiological processes, and intellectual functions. Consists of the brain, spinal cord, nerves, and sensory receptors. Access the text alternative for slide images. © McGraw Hill, LLC 28  Organ Systems of the Body 5 Endocrine System A major regulatory system that influences metabolism, growth, reproduction, and many other functions. Consists of glands, such as the pituitary, that secrete hormones. Access the text alternative for slide images. © McGraw Hill, LLC 29  Organ Systems of the Body 6 Cardiovascular System Transports nutrients, waste products, gases, and hormones throughout the body; plays a role in the immune response and the regulation of body temperature. Consists of the heart, blood vessels, and blood. Access the text alternative for slide images. © McGraw Hill, LLC 30  Organ Systems of the Body 7 Lymphatic System Removes foreign substances from the blood and lymph, combats disease, maintains tissue fluid balance, and absorbs fats from the digestive tract. Consists of the lymphatic vessels, lymph nodes, and other lymphatic organs. Access the text alternative for slide images. © McGraw Hill, LLC 31  Organ Systems of the Body 8 Respiratory System Exchanges oxygen and carbon dioxide between the blood and air and regulates blood pH. Consists of the lungs and respiratory passages. Access the text alternative for slide images. © McGraw Hill, LLC 32  Organ Systems of the Body 9 Digestive System Performs the mechanical and chemical processes of digestion, absorption of nutrients, and elimination of wastes. Consists of the mouth, esophagus, stomach, intestines, and accessory organs. Access the text alternative for slide images. © McGraw Hill, LLC 33  Organ Systems of the Body 10 Urinary System Removes waste products from the blood and regulates blood pH, ion balance, and water balance. Consists of the kidneys, urinary bladder, and ducts that carry urine. Access the text alternative for slide images. © McGraw Hill, LLC 34  Organ Systems of the Body 11 Female Reproductive System Produces oocytes and is the site of fertilization and fetal development; produces milk for the newborn; produces hormones that influence sexual function and behaviors. Consists of the ovaries, vagina, uterus, mammary glands, and associated structures. Access the text alternative for slide images. © McGraw Hill, LLC 35  Organ Systems of the Body 12 Male Reproductive System Produces and transfers sperm cells to the female and produces hormones that influence sexual functions and behaviors. Consists of the testes, accessory structures, ducts, and penis. Access the text alternative for slide images. © McGraw Hill, LLC 36  1.4 Characteristics of Life 1 Organization: condition in which there are specific interrelationships and functions among the parts of an organism. Metabolism: the ability to used energy to perform vital functions; all chemical reactions of the body. Responsiveness: ability to sense changes in the interior and exterior environment and adjust; cell-to-cell communication is necessary Growth: increase in size and/or number of cells. © McGraw Hill, LLC 37  1.4 Characteristics of Life 2 Development: changes in an organism over time. Differentiation: change from general to specific. Morphogenesis: change in shape of tissues, organs, or the entire organism. Reproduction: formation of new cells or new organisms for growth and development; allows organisms to pass on their genes to their offspring. © McGraw Hill, LLC 38  1.5 Homeostasis Homeostasis: maintenance of relatively constant internal environment within the body. Values of variables (conditions) fluctuate around the set point (ideal normal value) to establish a normal range of values. Access the text alternative for slide images. © McGraw Hill, LLC 39  Feedback Loops Homeostasis is regulated by feedback loops that allow for a process to be adjusted by the outcome. The two types of feedbacks loops are negative feedback and positive feedback. Components of a feedback loop: Receptor: monitors the value of some variable by detecting a stimulus (a change in the variable) Control center: establishes the set point and receives input from the receptor. Effector: generates the response which can change the value of the variable. © McGraw Hill, LLC 40  Negative Feedback Regulates most systems in the body. Counteracts a change in a variable (for example, body temperature) by decreasing the change to help maintain homeostasis by returning to the set point. © McGraw Hill, LLC 41  Negative-Feedback Mechanism: Body Temperature Access the text alternative for slide images. © McGraw Hill, LLC 42  Negative-Feedback Control of Body Temperature Access the text alternative for slide images. © McGraw Hill, LLC 43  Changes in Blood Pressure During Exercise During exercise, muscle tissue demands more oxygen. To meet this demand, blood pressure (BP) increases, resulting in an increase in blood flow to the tissues. The reset range is higher and broader than the resting range. After exercise ceases, the range returns to the resting condition. Access the text alternative for slide images. © McGraw Hill, LLC 44  Positive Feedback 1 When a deviation occurs, the response is to make the deviation greater. Unusual in normal, healthy individuals, leads away from homeostasis and can result in death. Examples of normal positive feedback: childbirth, lactation, blood clotting. Example of harmful positive feedback: after hemorrhage, blood pressure drops and the heart’s ability to pump blood decreases. Effectors continue the response beyond the set point until the original stimulus is removed. © McGraw Hill, LLC 45  Positive Feedback 2 Access the text alternative for slide images. © McGraw Hill, LLC 46  1.6 Terminology and the Body Plan 1 Anatomical Position. Body erect, face forward, feet together, palms face forward. Other Body Positions. Supine: lying face upward. Prone: lying face downward. Directional Terms. Superior (Cephalic) versus Inferior (Caudal) toward or away from the head. Medial versus Lateral relative to the midline. Proximal versus Distal used to describe linear structures. Superficial versus Deep relative to the surface of the body. Access the text alternative for slide images. © McGraw Hill, LLC 47  1.6 Terminology and the Body Plan 2 Directional Terms (cont.). Anterior (Ventral) versus Posterior (Dorsal). Anterior is forward; posterior is toward the back. Access the text alternative for slide images. © McGraw Hill, LLC 48  Directional Terms for Humans TABLE 1.2 Directional Terms for Humans Term Etymology* Definition Example Right Toward the right side of the body Right ear Left Toward the left side of the body Left eye Superior L. higher A structure above another The chin is superior to the navel. Inferior L. lower A structure below another The navel is inferior to the chin. Cephalic G. kephale, head Closer to the head than another structure (usually The chin is cephalic to the navel. synonymous with superior) Caudal L. cauda, a tail Closer to the tail than another structure (usually The navel is caudal to the chin. synonymous with inferior) Anterior L. before The front of the body The navel is anterior to the spine. Posterior L. posterus, following The back of the body The spine is posterior to the breastbone. Ventral L. ventr-, belly Toward the belly (synonymous with anterior) The navel is ventral to the spine. Dorsal L. dorsum, back Toward the back (synonymous with posterior) The spine is dorsal to the breastbone. Proximal L. proximus, nearest Closer to the point of attachment to the body than The elbow is proximal to the wrist. another structure Distal L. di- plus sto, to stand Farther from the point of attachment to the body The wrist is distal to the elbow. apart or be distant than another structure Lateral L. latus, side Away from the midline of the body The nipple is lateral to the breastbone. Medial L. medialis, middle Toward the midline of the body The nose is medial to the eye. Superficial L. superficialis, toward Toward or on the surface (not shown in figure The skin is superficial to muscle. the surface 1.10) Deep O.E. deop, deep Away from the surface, internal (not shown in The lungs are deep to the ribs. figure 1.10) *Origin and meaning of the word: L., Latin; G., Greek; O.E., Old English. © McGraw Hill, LLC 49  Body Parts and Regions 1 Access the text alternative for slide images. © McGraw Hill, LLC 50  Body Parts and Regions 2 Access the text alternative for slide images. © McGraw Hill, LLC 51  Subdivisions of the Abdomen Access the text alternative for slide images. © McGraw Hill, LLC 52  Planes Through the Body 1 Sagittal divides body into left and right portions. Median is a sagittal plane down the midline of body. Frontal (coronal) divides body into anterior and posterior sections. Transverse (horizontal) divides body into superior and inferior sections. Oblique: Other than at a right angle. © McGraw Hill, LLC 53  Planes Through the Body 2 (a, b, c) McGraw Hill Access the text alternative for slide images. © McGraw Hill, LLC 54  Planes Through an Organ Longitudinal: cut along the length of an organ. Transverse (cross): cut at right angle to the length of the organ. Oblique: cut at any but a right angle. © McGraw Hill, LLC 55  Body Cavities The body contains dorsal and ventral body cavities. Dorsal body cavity: Cranial cavity houses the brain. Vertebral canal houses the spinal cord. Ventral body cavity contains majority of viscera; divisions include: Thoracic cavity, which is further divided into pleural cavities, each enclosing a lung, and a medial mediastinum, which contains the heart, some major blood vessels, thymus, trachea, esophagus. Abdominopelvic cavity, consisting of the abdominal cavity and pelvic cavity. Abdominal: contains many digestive organs (for example, stomach, intestines, liver) and spleen. Pelvic: contains urinary bladder, urethra, rectum, reproductive organs. © McGraw Hill, LLC 56  Trunk Cavities Access the text alternative for slide images. © McGraw Hill, LLC 57  Serous Membranes Cover the organs of body cavities and line the cavity. Fist represents an organ. Inner balloon wall represents visceral serous membrane that covers the organ. Outer balloon wall represents parietal serous membrane line lines the cavity. Cavity between two membranes filled with lubricating serous fluid that is produced by the membranes. Access the text alternative for slide images. © McGraw Hill, LLC 58  Location of Serous Membranes Pericardium surrounds the heart; contains pericardial fluid. Pleura surrounds the lungs and lines the thoracic cavity; contains pleural fluid. Peritoneum surrounds many abdominal organs and lines the Ltd./McGraw Hill Education abdominopelvic cavity; contains peritoneal fluid. Access the text alternative for slide images. © McGraw Hill, LLC 59  Peritoneum Mesentery – regions of double-folded visceral peritoneum that is attached to certain points to the posterior abdominopelvic wall. The mesenteries provide a pathway for nerves and blood vessels to reach the digestive organs. Retroperitoneal – behind the peritoneum; organs or parts of organs that only have peritoneum on their peritoneal cavity side; includes the kidneys, ureters, adrenal glands, part of the pancreas, parts of the large intestine, and the urinary bladder. © McGraw Hill, LLC 60  Inflammation of Serous Membranes Inflammation due to infection, can be very serious. Pericarditis – inflammation of the pericardium Pleurisy – inflammation of the pleura Peritonitis – inflammation of the peritoneum © McGraw Hill, LLC 61 Because learning changes everything. ® www.mheducation.com © 2023 McGraw Hill, LLC. All rights reserved. Authorized only for instructor use in the classroom. No reproduction or further distribution permitted without the prior written consent of McGraw Hill, LLC.