FINAL TRANSES _ ANAPHY-Prelims PDF - Human Anatomy and Physiology MC1

HUMAN ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY TERM MC1: BSN-1E LECTURE TRANSES BY: AYA SABAS 01 MC 1 ANATOMY & PHYSIOLOGY (COURSE OUTLINE) II. LEVELS OF...

HUMAN ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY TERM MC1: BSN-1E LECTURE TRANSES BY: AYA SABAS 01 MC 1 ANATOMY & PHYSIOLOGY (COURSE OUTLINE) II. LEVELS OF STRUCTURAL ORGANIZATION (LADDER) LINK: https://drive.google.com/file/d/1pUKFFvP9Yu8rlEKFpyL Qh8Ute8_7I2vb/view?usp=sharing CHAPTER 1: THE HUMAN BODY: AN ORIENTATION ANATOMY PHYSIOLOGY Greek word; cut The study of how 1. Chemical Level (tomy), apart (ana) the body work and The simplest level of structural ladder Structure and function Atoms combine to form molecules such as shape of the body Greek word; ology water, sugar, & protein The relationship (the study), physio between body (nature) 2. Cellular Level parts to one Cells are made up of molecules, cells varied another in sizes and shapes TYPES OF ANATOMY The smallest units of living things Gross Anatomy Form different types of tissues o Study of 3. Tissue Level large, Group of similar cells that have a common easily function observable 4 basic types: structures. 1. Epithelial Microscopic 2. Connective Anatomy 3. Muscular o Study of 4. Nervous very small structure, 4. Organ Level where a Composed of two or more tissue types to magnifying perform a specific function lens or 5. Organ System Level microscope Group of organs that work together to is needed. accomplish a common purpose Complementary of Digestive system, nervous system, structure and function cardiovascular system, etc. 6. Organismal Level Represents the highest level of structural organization HUMAN ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY TERM MC1: BSN-1E LECTURE TRANSES BY: AYA SABAS 01 5. Endocrine III. THE 11 ORGAN SYSTEMS Pituitary, thyroid, 1. Integumentary parathyroid, adrenals, Skin, Hair, Nails thymus, pancreas, pineal, Forms the external body covering ovaries, testes, and ovary. (waterproof); protects deeper tissue from Slow-acting control system injury; synthesizes vitamin Glands secrete hormones D (regulate body temp); that regulate processes such as growth, location of cutaneous reproduction, and nutrient use by body cells. receptors (pain, pressure, etc.) (excretes salts and 6. Cardiovascular urea), and sweat and oil Heart, blood vessels, glands. capillaries, and blood Blood vessels transport 2. Skeletal blood, which carries Bones, cartilages, ligaments, joints oxygen, carbon dioxide, Protects and supports nutrients, wastes, etc.; the body organs; provides a heart pumps blood. framework the muscles use to cause movement; 7. Lymphatic blood cells are formed Thoracic duct, lymph nodes, lymphatic within bones; stores vessels minerals (hematopoiesis). Picks up fluid leaked from blood vessels and returns 3. Muscular it to blood; disposes of Skeletal muscle (attached to bone) debris in the lymphatic Allows manipulation of the stream; houses white environment, locomotion blood cells (protect against bacteria, toxins, (contraction and mobility), tumors) involved in immunity. and facial expression; maintains posture; 8. Respiratory produces heat. Nasal cavity, pharynx, larynx, trachea, bronchus, left lung 4. Nervous Keeps blood constantly Brain, spinal cord, nerves, supplied with oxygen and and sensory receptors removes carbon dioxide; Fast-acting control system the gaseous exchanges of the body; responds to occur through the walls of internal and external the air sacs of the lungs. changes by activating appropriate muscles and glands (electrical messages), internal stimuli via nerves impulses. HUMAN ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY TERM MC1: BSN-1E LECTURE TRANSES BY: AYA SABAS 01 9. Digestive Overall function of the reproductive system is Oral cavity, esophagus, production of offspring. Testes produce sperm and male sex stomach, small intestine, hormones; ducts and glands aid in delivery of viable sperm to large intestine, rectum, the female reproductive tract. Ovaries produce eggs and female anus sex hormones; remaining structures serves as sites for Breaks food down into fertilization and development of the fetus. Mammary glands of absorbable units that female breast produce milk to nourish the newborn. enter the blood for distribution to body cells; indigestible foodstuffs are eliminated as IV. MAINTAINING LIFE feces. 10. Urinary Organ systems have to be interrelated and synergistic in order Kidney, ureter, urinary to maintain life! bladder, urethra Eliminates nitrogen- containing wastes from MAINTAINING LIFE: NECESSARY the body; regulates water, LIFE FUNCTIONS electrolyte, and acid-base balance of the All living organisms carry out blood. certain vital functional activities necessary for life, including: 11. Reproductive Male Reproductive System 1. Maintaining Boundaries o Seminal vesicles, prostate gland, Distinct internal environment from penis, vas deferens, testis, scrotum surrounding external environment Female Reproductive System (selectively permeable membrane) o Mammary glands (in breasts), Encloses contents & essential substances uterine tube, ovary, uterus, vagina (integumentary system) Protective nature: 1. Heat / Dehydration 2. Cold 3. Toxins 4. Pathogens 2. Movement Movement is necessary on all levels of organization! Change in position of the body, body parts, or motion of internal organs. Ability to manipulate external environment Activities promoted by the muscular system; the skeletal system provides the bony framework that the muscles pull on. HUMAN ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY TERM MC1: BSN-1E LECTURE TRANSES BY: AYA SABAS 01 On the cellular level, the muscle cell’s ability Occurs when “construction” out-spaces to move by shortening is more precisely “destruction” called contractility. 3. Responsiveness V. REQUIREMENTS FOR LIFE: SURVIVAL NEEDS Ability to sense stimuli and respond to them May be conscious or unconscious / reflexes 1. Nutrients: 4. Digestion Used as energy source (carbohydrates) Breaking down of ingested food into simple Supply raw material for building new living nutrient molecules that the body can absorb matter (protein & fat, less) May be physical or chemical in nature Help regulate vital chemical reactions In a simple, one-celled organism such as an (minerals & vitamins) amoeba, the cell itself is the “digestion 2. Oxygen factory.” It is used to release energy from food 5. Metabolism substances All chemical reactions that occur within the Released energy then drives metabolic body processes Catabolism Approximately 20% of the air we breathe is o Breaking down substances into their oxygen. basic form 3. Water Anabolism Most abundant chemical substance in the o Synthesizing larger molecules from body basic units Required for metabolic processes 6. Excretion Transports substances throughout the body Removal of waste products produced by Important for regulating body temperature metabolic reactions 4. Heat Waste products are either non-usable by- Excessively below normal body temperature, products, or potential toxins metabolism slows down and eventually 7. Reproduction comes to a stop. Occurs at the cellular & organismal levels Excessively above normal body temperature, Cells divide to produce two identical cells metabolism is too rapid, proteins & enzymes. necessary for growth and repair Normal body temperature must be Organisms produce offspring and as a result, maintained (37°C (98.6°F)) pass on genetic information Most body heat is generated by the activity of Is regulated by hormones of the endocrine the muscular system. system 5. Atmospheric Pressure 8. Growth Force air exerts on the surface of the body Increase in body size without change in Affects breathing rate and gas exchange & shape ultimately, cellular metabolism (high altitude = Accomplished by: thin air, low atm pressure = slow gas o Increased cell number exchange) o Increased cell size  HUMAN ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY TERM MC1: BSN-1E LECTURE TRANSES BY: AYA SABAS 01 HOMEOSTASIS CONTROL MECHANISM VI. HOMEOSTASIS Communication is accomplished chiefly by the nervous and endocrine systems, which use neural electrical impulses or The body’s ability to maintain relatively stable internal blood borne hormones, respectively, as information carriers. conditions even though the outside world is continuously Regardless of the factor being regulated (the variable) all changing. The literal translation of homeostasis is “unchanging,” homeostatic control mechanisms have at least three (homeo ‘the same’, stasis ‘standing still which is not true’). It interdependent components. indicates a dynamic state of equilibrium, or a balance, in which internal conditions vary, but always within relatively narrow Receptor limits. In general, the body is in homeostasis when its needs o a sensor that monitors the environment and are adequately met, and it is functioning smoothly. responds to changes, stimuli, by sending information (input) to the second component, Negative feedback control center. o Shut off the original stimulus or reduce its o Input flows from the receptor to the control intensity center along the so-called afferent pathway. o It causes the variable to change in a direction Control Center opposite to that of the initial change, returning o Analyzes the input it receives and then it to its “ideal” value. determines the appropriate response or Positive feedback course of action. o Increase the original disturbance (stimulus) Effector and push the variable farther from its original o Provides the means of response (output) to value. the stimulus. o Information flows from the control center to the effector along the efferent pathway. o The results of the response then feedback to influence the stimulus, either depressing it (negative feedback) so that the whole control mechanism is shut off or enhancing it (positive feedback) so that the reaction continues at an even faster rate. o The result or response enhances the original stimulus so that the activity (output) is VII. THE LANGUAGE OF ANATOMY accelerated. Special terminology is used to prevent misunderstanding Exact terms are used for: o Position o Direction o Regions o Structures Base the terminologies on its anatomical position Directional terms - explain the exact location of a specific body structure HUMAN ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY TERM MC1: BSN-1E LECTURE TRANSES BY: AYA SABAS 01 Regional terms - specific body areas Anatomical position helps us determine the structure ORIENTATION AND DIRECTIONAL TERMS Extra Notes: o Distal means away from the origin of the body part o Toes is distal to the knees o Superficial means at the body surface, external Extra Notes: o Deep means away from the body suface, o Ears are lateral to the nose internal o Superior means above o The muscle is superficial to the bone o Cranium the head o Inferior means below BODY LANDMARKS o Cephalocaudal - head to toe o Cephalo – head; Caudal – toe Extra Notes: o Medial means in between o Lateral means away from the midline o Intermediate means between a more medial and a more lateral structure o Proximal means close to the origin of the body part HUMAN ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY TERM MC1: BSN-1E LECTURE TRANSES BY: AYA SABAS 01 Body planes - Imaginary lines for sectioning or cutting of the body and its organs o Median (midsagittal) ▪ Lengthwise/longitudinal ▪ Separates the body from left to the right base on the patient ▪ Parasagittal (not so middle) o Frontal (coronal) plane ▪ Lengthwise/longitudinal ▪ Separate the body from anterior to posterior o Transverse plane ▪ Separate the body from superior and interior ▪ Cross sectional image BODY CAVITIES BODY PLANES Body cavities - spaces within the body that contains the internal organs Dorsal body cavity o Cranial cavity o Spinal cavity Ventral body cavity o Thoracic cavity (separated from the rest of the ventral cavity) o Abdominal cavity = intestines and others HUMAN ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY TERM MC1: BSN-1E LECTURE TRANSES BY: AYA SABAS 01 o Pelvic cavity = urinary organs Diaphragm separates the thoracic cavity from the abdominopelvic. Abdomen and pelvic (abdominopelvic cavity) are not separated since the do not have distinct separation ABDOMINOPELVIC QUADRANTS ABDOMINOPELVIC MAJOR ORGANS Quadrants = 4 Regions = 9 Epi - above abdomen Hypo - below abdomen HUMAN ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY TERM MC1: BSN-1E LECTURE TRANSES BY: AYA SABAS 01 Three Regions CHAPTER 2: CELLS AND TISSUES o Nuclear Membrane (outer I. OBJECTIVES covering) 1. Define generalized cell o Nucleolus 2. Identify on a cell model or diagram the three o Chromatin 3. major cell regions (nucleus, cytoplasm, and 4. plasma membrane) NUCLEAR MEMBRANE 5. List the structures of the nucleus, and explain the Also called “Nuclear Envelope” function of chromatin and nucleoli Barrier of nucleus Consists of a double II. CELLS AND TISSUES phospholipid membrane Contain nuclear pores that CELLS TISSUES allow for exchange of material with the rest of the Carry out all chemical Tissues are groups of cell activities needed to cells that are similar in Nuclear envelope allows sustain life structure and function some substances to pass Cells are the building through blocks of all living things NUCLEOLI Every organism is Singular: Nucleolus; Plural: Nucleoli composed of different Nucleus contains one or more nucleoli types of cell Sites of ribosome production III. ANATOMY OF THE CELL Ribosomes then migrate to the Cells are not all the same cytoplasm through All cells share general structures nuclear pores Cells are organized into three main regions: CHROMATIN o Nucleus Composed of DNA and protein o Cytoplasm Scattered throughout o Plasma the nucleus Membrane Chromatin condenses THE NUCLEUS to form chromosomes when the cell divides Control center of the cell o Contains genetic material (DNA) ▪ DNA is important for cell reproduction ▪ Instructions for building proteins HUMAN ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY TERM MC1: BSN-1E LECTURE TRANSES BY: AYA SABAS 01 PLASMA MEMBRANE ▪ Acts as Barrier for cell contents adhesive, o Separates the cell from the surrounding glues the environment cells together Double phospholipid layer o Desmosomes o Hydrophilic heads (water loving) ▪ Anchoring o Hydrophobic tails (water fearing) junction, Also contains protein, cholesterol, and glycoproteins prevents the cells from being pulled apart o Gap junctions ▪ Communicating junction, allow communication from one cell to another Cholesterol o Keeps the membrane fluid CYTOPLASM o Little amounts only Material outside the nucleus and inside the plasma Proteins membrane o For transport, delivering outside or inside the Chemical substances cell (acts as a carrier that binds to the Content of the cytoplasm differ from one cell to another substance and moves it through the ELEMENTS OF CYTOPLASM membrane) o Cytosol Glycoprotein ▪ Fluid that suspends other elements o Sugar proteins o Organelles o Cell to cell recognition and interaction ▪ Metabolic machinery of the cell o Determines the blood type o Inclusions o Acts as a receptor for certain bacteria or ▪ Non-functioning units viruses Fat Cells o If changes in glycoprotein occurs this possibly o Lipid droplets transforms into a cancer cell Liver and muscle cells o Glycogen PLASMA MEMBRANE SPECIALIZATIONS granules Microvilli Skin o Finger-like projections that increase surface o Melanin area for absorption Membrane junctions o Tight junctions HUMAN ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY TERM MC1: BSN-1E LECTURE TRANSES BY: AYA SABAS 01 CYTOPLASMIC ORGANELLES ▪ Secretory vesicles ▪ Cell membrane components ▪ Lysosome Contains powerful digestive enzymes Capable of digesting worn out cells Ribosomes o Made of protein and RNA o Sites of protein synthesis o Found at two locations ▪ Free in the cytoplasm Lysosomes ▪ Attached to rough endoplasmic o “Breakdown bodies” of the cell reticulum o Abundant in phagocytes – engulf/dispose Endoplasmic Reticulum (ER) bacteria in our immune system o Fluid-filled tubules for carrying substances o Contain enzymes that digest non usable o Serves as the “mini circulatory of the cells” materials within the cell ▪ Because it provides a network of Peroxisomes channels for carrying substances o Membranous sacs of oxidase enzymes (mainly proteins and others) ▪ Detoxify harmful substances o Two types of ER ▪ Break down free radicals (highly ▪ Rough endoplasmic reticulum reactive chemicals Studded with ribosomes Cellular metabolism of the Site where building cells has by products are materials of cellular the free radicals membrane are formed Free radicals are harmful if ▪ Smooth endoplasmic reticulum it accumulates in the cells Does not contain o For free radicals not to accumulate, ribosomes peroxisome converts it into a non-harmful Functions in cholesterol substance -> hydrogen peroxide synthesis and breakdown, o Replicate by pinching in half fat metabolism, and Mitochondria detoxification of drugs o “Powerhouses” of the cell Golgi Apparatus o Singular: Mitochondrion; Plural: Mitochondria o Swells up if it is full of proteins o Change shape continuously o Modifies and packages proteins o Carry out reactions where oxygen is used to o Produces different types of packages break down food HUMAN ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY TERM MC1: BSN-1E LECTURE TRANSES BY: AYA SABAS 01 o Provides Adenosine Triphosphate (ATP) for cellular energy Cytoskeleton o Network of protein structures that extend throughout the cytoplasm o Provides the cell with an internal framework o Maintains the shape of the cells o Three different types ▪ Microfilaments ▪ Intermediate filaments ▪ Microtubules Centrioles o Rod-shaped bodies made of microtubules o Direct formation of mitotic spindle during cell division CELLULAR PROJECTIONS Not found in all cells Used for movement o Cilia moves materials across the cell surface o Flagellum propels the cell CELL DIVERSITY IV. CELLULAR PHYSIOLOGY: MEMBRANE TRANSPORT Membrane Transport – movement of substance into and out of the cell Transport is by two basic methods o Passive transport ▪ No energy is required o Active transport ▪ The cell must provide metabolic energy SOLUTIONS AND TRANSPORT Solution – homogeneous mixture of two or more components o Solvent – dissolving medium  HUMAN ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY TERM MC1: BSN-1E LECTURE TRANSES BY: AYA SABAS 01 o Solutes – components in smaller PASSIVE TRANSPORT PROCESSES quantities within a solution Filtration Intracellular fluid – nucleoplasm and cytosol o Water and solutes are forced through a Interstitial fluid – fluid on the exterior of the cell membrane by fluid, or hydrostatic pressure SELECT PERMEABILITY o A pressure gradient must exist The plasma membrane allows some materials ▪ Solute-containing fluid is to pass while excluding others pushed from a high-pressure This permeability includes movement into and area to a lower pressure area out of the cell ACTIVE TRANSPORT PROCESSES PASSIVE TRANSPORT PROCESSES Transport substances that are unable to Diffusion pass by diffusion o Particles tend to distribute themselves o They may be too large evenly within a solution o They may not be able to dissolve in the o Movement is from high concentration to fat core of the membrane low concentration, or down a o They may have to move against a concentration gradient concentration gradient Two common forms of active transport TYPES OF DIFFUSION o Solute pumping Simple diffusion o Bulk transport o Unassisted Solute pumping process o Amino acids, some sugars and ions are o Solutes are lipid-soluble materials or transported by solute pumps small enough to pass through o ATP energizes protein carriers, and in membrane pores most cases, moves substances against Osmosis – simple diffusion of water concentration gradients o Highly polar water easily crosses the plasma membrane Facilitated diffusion o Substances require a protein carrier for passive transport DIFFUSION THROUGH THE PLASMA MEMBRANE Bulk transport o Exocytosis ▪ Moves materials out of the cell ▪ Material is carried in a membranous vesicle HUMAN ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY TERM MC1: BSN-1E LECTURE TRANSES BY: AYA SABAS 01 ▪ Vesicle migrates to o Cell division plasma membrane ▪ Cell replicates itself ▪ Vesicle combines with ▪ Function is to produce more plasma membrane cells for growth and repair ▪ Material is emptied to processes the outside DNA REPLICATION Genetic material duplicated and readies a cell for division into two cells Occurs toward the end of interphase DNA uncoils and each side serves as a template Bulk transport o Endocytosis ▪ Extracellular substances are engulfed by being EVENTS OF CELL DIVISION enclosed in a Mitosis membranous vescicle o Division of the nucleus o Types of endocytosis o Results in the formation of two ▪ Phagocytosis – cell daughter nuclei eating Cytokinesis ▪ Pinocytosis – cell o Division of the cytoplasm drinking o Begins when mitosis is near completion o Results in the formation of two daughter cells STAGES OF MITOSIS Interphase o No cell division occurs o The cell carries out normal metabolic activity and growth Prophase o First part of cell division o Centromeres migrate to the poles V. CELL LIFE CYCLE Mataphase Cells have two major periods o Spindle from centromeres are attached o Interphase to chromosomes that are aligned in the ▪ Cell grows center of the cell ▪ Cell carries on metabolic processes HUMAN ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY TERM MC1: BSN-1E LECTURE TRANSES BY: AYA SABAS 01 Anaphase Messenger RNA o Daughter chromosomes are pulled o Carries the instructions for building a toward the poles protein from the nucleus to the o The cell begins to elongate ribosome Telophase o Daughter nuclei begin forming TRANSCRIPTION AND TRANSLATION o A cleavage furrow (for cell division) Transcription begins to form o Transfer of information from DNA’s base sequence to the complimentary base sequence of mRNA Translation o Base sequence of nucleic acid is translated to an amino acid sequence o Amino acids are the building blocks of proteins PROTEIN SYNTHESIS Gene – DNA segment that carries a blueprint for building one protein Proteins have many functions o Building materials for cells o Act as enzymes (biological catalysts) RNA is essential for protein synthesis ROLE OF RNA Transfer RNA (tRNA) o Transfers appropriate amino acids to the ribosome for building the protein Ribosomal RNA (rRNA) o Helps form the ribosomes where proteins are built HUMAN ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY TERM MC1: BSN-1E LECTURE TRANSES BY: AYA SABAS 01 Shape of cells CHAPTER 3: CELLS AND TISSUES o Squamous – flattened I. BODY TISSUES o Cuboidal – cube- shaped Cells are specialized for particular functions o Columnar –column- Tissues like o Groups of cells with similar structure and function o Four primary types ▪ Epithelium ▪ Connective tissue SIMPLE EPITHELIUM ▪ Nervous tissue Simple squamous ▪ Muscle Single layer of flat cells Usually forms membranes II. EPITHELIAL TISSUES o Lines body cavities o Lines lungs and Found in different areas capillaries o Body coverings o Body linings o Glandular tissue Functions o Protection o Absorption o Filtration o Secretion EPITHELIAL CHARACTERISTICS Cells fit closely together Tissue layer always has one free surface The lower surface is bound by a basement membrane Avascular (have no blood supply) Regenerate easily if well nourished Simple cuboidal CLASSIFICATION OF EPITHELIUM o Single layer of cube- Number of cell like cells layers o Common in glands o Simple – one and their ducts layer o Forms walls of kidney o Stratified – tubules more than o Covers the ovaries one layer HUMAN ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY TERM MC1: BSN-1E LECTURE TRANSES BY: AYA SABAS 01 Simple columnar Stratified squamous o Single layer of tall o Cells at the free edge cells are flattened o Often includes goblet o Found as a protective cells, which produce covering where mucus friction is common o Lines digestive tract o Locations ▪ Skin ▪ Mouth ▪ Esophagus Pseudostratified Stratified cuboidal o Single layer, but some o Two layers of cuboidal cells cells are shorter than Stratified columnar others o Surface cells are columnar, cells o Often looks like a double underneath vary in size and shape cell layer Stratified cuboidal and columnar o Sometimes ciliated, such o Rare in human body as in the respiratory tract o Found mainly in ducts of large glands o May function in absorption or secretion HUMAN ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY TERM MC1: BSN-1E LECTURE TRANSES BY: AYA SABAS 01 Transitional epithelium CONNECTIVE TISSUE CHARACTERISTICS o Shape of cells depends upon the Variations in blood supply amount of o Some tissue types are well stretching vascularized o Lines organs of o Some have poor blood supply or are the urinary system avascular Extracellular matrix o Non-living material that surrounds living cells III. EXTRACELLULAR MATRIX Two main elements o Ground substance – mostly water along with adhesion proteins and polysaccharide molecules o Fibers ▪ Produced by the cells ▪ Three types Collagen fibers Elastic fibers Reticular fibers GLANDULAR EPITHELIUM Gland – one or more cells that secretes a IV. CONNECTIVE TISSUE TYPES particular product Two major gland types Bone (osseous tissue) o Endocrine gland o Composed of: ▪ Ductless ▪ Bone cells in lacunae ▪ Secretions are hormones (cavities) o Exocrine gland ▪ Hard matrix of calcium salts ▪ Empty through ducts to the ▪ Large numbers of collagen epithelial surface fibers ▪ Include sweat and oil glands o Used to protect and support the body CONNECTIVE TISSUE Found everywhere in the body Includes the most abundant and widely distributed tissues Functions o Binds body tissues together o Supports the body o Provides protection HUMAN ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY TERM MC1: BSN-1E LECTURE TRANSES BY: AYA SABAS 01 Hyaline cartilage Adipose tissue o Most common o Matrix is an areolar cartilage tissue in which fat o Composed of: globules ▪ Abundant predominate collagen o Many cells contain fibers large lipid deposits ▪ Rubbery o Functions matrix ▪ Insulates o Entire fetal skeleton is hyaline cartilage the body ▪ Protects some organs Elastic cartilage ▪ Serves as a site of fuel o Provides elasticity storage o Example: supports the external ear Reticular connective tissue o Delicate network of Fibrocartilage interwoven fibers o Highly compressible o Forms stroma o Example: forms (internal cushion-like discs supporting between vertebrae network) of lymphoid organs ▪ Lymph nodes ▪ Spleen Dense connective tissue ▪ Bone marrow o Main matrix element is collagen fibers Blood o Cells are fibroblasts o Blood cells o Examples surrounded by fluid ▪ Tendon – matrix attach muscle o Fibers are visible to bone during clotting ▪ Ligaments – o Functions as the attach bone to bone transport vehicle for materials Areolar connective tissue o Most widely distributed connective tissue V. MUSCLE TISSUE o Soft, pliable tissue Function is to produce movement o Contains all fiber types Three types o Can soak up excess o Skeletal muscle fluid o Cardiac muscle o Smooth muscle HUMAN ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY TERM MC1: BSN-1E LECTURE TRANSES BY: AYA SABAS 01 MUSCLE TISSUE TYPES VII. TISSUE REPAIR Skeletal muscle o Can be controlled Regeneration voluntarily o Replacement of destroyed tissue by o Cells attach to the same kind of cells connective tissue Fibrosis o Cells are striated o Repair by dense fibrous connective o Cells have more than tissue (scar tissue) one nucleus Determination of method o Type of tissue damaged Cardiac muscle o Severity of the injury o Found only in the heart EVENTS IN TISSUE REPAIR o Function is to pump Capillaries become very permeable blood (involuntary) o Introduce clotting proteins o Cells attached to o Wall off injured area other cardiac muscle Formation of granulation tissue cells at intercalated Regeneration of surface epithelium disks o Cells are striated REGENERATION OF TISSUES o One nucleus per cell Tissues that regenerate easily o Epithelial tissue Smooth muscle o Fibrous connective tissue and bone o Involuntary muscle Tissues that regenerate poorly o Surrounds hollow o Skeletal muscle organs Tissues that are replaced largely with scar o Attached to other tissue smooth muscle cells o Cardiac muscle o No visible striations o Nervous tissue within the brain and o One nucleus per cell spinal cord VI. NERVOUS TISSUE DEVELOPMENTAL ASPECTS OF TISSUE Epithelial tissue arises from all three primary Neurons and nerve support cells germ layers Function is to send impulses to other areas Muscle and connective tissue arise from the of the body mesoderm o Irritability Nervous tissue arises from the ectoderm o Conductivity With old age there is a decrease in mass and viabililty in most tissues  HUMAN ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY TERM MC1: BSN-1E LECTURE TRANSES BY: AYA SABAS 01 Often adapted for CHAPTER 4: INTEGUMENTARY absorption or secretion I. SKIN AND BODY MEMBRANES Mucus membrane is moist Function of body membranes due to protective mucus except for o Line or cover body surfaces some area like the urinary track o Protect body surfaces (but urine keeps it wet) o Lubricate body surfaces SEROUS MEMBRANES (serosa) Occurs in two layers, parietal layer – lines specific portion of CLASSIFICATION OF BODY MEMBRANES the wall of ventral body cavity – it folds itself to form the visceral Epithelial membrane: covering and lining membranes layer. Visceral layer – cover the organs. o Cutaneous membrane Surface simple o Mucous membrane squamous epithelium o Serous membrane Underlying areolar Connective tissue membranes connective tissue Lines open body CUTANEOUS MEMBRANE cavities that are closed Cutaneous membrane = skin to the exterior of the o A dry membrane – because it is exposed to body air Serous layers separated by serous fluid (secreted by o Outermost protective boundary both the layers/membranes, parietal & visceral – Superficial Epidermis allows organs to slide easily across cavity walls) o Keratinized stratified squamous epithelium Specific serous membranes ▪ contains numerous layers of o Peritoneum squamous cells, which is called ▪ Lines the abdominal cavity “keratinocytes” – very flat and very o Pleura hard, protection from harmful ▪ Around the lungs radiation of the sun o Pericardium Underlying dermis ▪ Around the heart o Mostly dense (fibrous) connective tissue MUCOUS MEMBRANES (mucosa) Contains either stratified squamous epithelium (mouth and esophagus) or simple columnar (rest of digestive track) Surface epithelium o Type depends on site ▪ Moist/wet = secretions, meant to maintained to moist Underlying loose connective tissue (lamina propria) o Mucosa lining, lines all body cavities that opens to the exterior Lines all body cavities that open to the exterior body surface  HUMAN ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY TERM MC1: BSN-1E LECTURE TRANSES BY: AYA SABAS 01 CONNECTIVE TISSUE MEMBRANE Synthesizes vitamin D Synovial membrane (has no epithelial cells) o Skin manufactures several proteins in the o Connective tissue only (areolar connective immunity including synthesizing vitamin D, tissue, provide smooth surface and secrete which is modified cholesterol molecules. lubricating fluid) o Vit. D → blood stream → liver → kidney → o Lines fibrous capsules activated vit. D “calcitriol” → circulated to the surrounding joints bones and body (bursae, tendon Sensory receptors (not actual, but considered since sheaths – which nervous system is the main receptor) cushions the organs o Located on the skin is the nerve fibers or during muscle activity) neurons o Tiny receptors = touch, pressure, temperature, pain II. INTEGUMENTARY SYSTEM Skin (cutaneous membrane) largest organ – it is self- SKIN STRUCTURE regenerating Epidermis – outer layer Skin derivatives (protective function) o Stratified squamous epithelium o Sweat glands o Often keratinized (hardened by keratin) o Oil glands Dermis o Hairs o Dense (fibrous) connective tissue o Nails ▪ Resistant to tearing Deep to dermis is the hypodermis (subcutaneous tissue) SKIN FUNCTIONS o Not part of the skin Protects deeper tissues from: o Anchors skin to underlying organs o Mechanical damage = bumps and cuts o Composed mostly of adipose tissue o Chemical damage = acids and bases o Provides site nutrient (fat) storage o Bacterial damage = bacteria, when there’s no o Shock absorber break then no point of entry o Insulate deeper tissues from temperature o Thermal damage = heat/cold, burns extreme o Ultraviolet radiation = radiation o Responsible for the curves (women) o Desiccation = drying out The upper most layer of skin is full of keratin – cornified (hardened) → prevent water lost Aids in heat regulation → heat comes out through sweat o Heat loss = activate sweat glands, (when sweat glands is activated it allows blood to flush into the skin capillary beds) o Heat retention = it does not allow the production of sweat to maintain heat inside Aids in excretion of urea and uric acid, salt o Acts as a mini-excretory system = through sweat HUMAN ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY TERM MC1: BSN-1E LECTURE TRANSES BY: AYA SABAS 01 LAYER OF EPIDERMIS NORMAL SKIN COLOR DETERMINANTS Stratum basale Melanin o Cells undergoing mitosis (cell division) o Yellow, brown or black pigments o Lies next to dermis Carotene Stratum spinosum (where langerhans cell be found) o Orange-yellow pigment from some Stratum granulosum vegetables Stratum lucidum Hemoglobin o Occurs only in thick skin (palms or soles) o Red coloring from blood cells in dermis Stratum corneum capillaries o Shingle-like dead cells (horny layer) o Oxygen content determines the extent of red coloring MELANIN Pigment (melanin) produced by melanocytes APPENDAGES OF THE SKIN Color is yellow to brown to black Sebaceous glands Melanocytes are mostly in the stratum basale o Produce oil Amount of melanin produced depends upon genetics ▪ Lubricant for skin and exposure to sunlight ▪ Kills bacteria o Most with ducts that empty into hair follicles o Glands are activated at puberty DERMIS Sweat glands Two layers o Widely distributed in skin o Papillary layer o Two types ▪ Projections called dermal papillae ▪ Eccrine ▪ Pain receptors Open via duct to pore on ▪ Capillary loops skin surface o Reticular layer ▪ Apocrine ▪ Blood vessels Ducts empty into hair ▪ Glands follicles ▪ Nerve receptors III. SWEAT AND ITS FUNCTION SKIN STRUCTURE Composition o Mostly water o Some metabolic waste o Fatty acids and proteins (apocrine only) Function o Helps dissipate excess heat o Excretes waste products o Acidic nature inhibits bacteria growth Odor is from associated bacteria HUMAN ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY TERM MC1: BSN-1E LECTURE TRANSES BY: AYA SABAS 01 APPENDAGES OF THE SKIN V. NAIL STRUCTURE Hair o Produced by hair bulb Free edge o Consists of hard keratinized epithelial cells Body o Melanocytes provide pigment for hair color Root of nail Eponychium – proximal nail fold that projects onto the nail body VI. SKIN HOMEOSTATIC IMBALANCES IV. HAIR ANATOMY Infections Central medulla o Athletes foot Cortex surrounds medulla ▪ Caused by fungal infection Cuticle on outside of cortex o Boils and carbuncles o Most heavily keratinized ▪ Caused by bacterial infection o Cold sores ▪ Caused by virus Infections and allergies o Contact dermatitis ▪ Exposures cause allergic reaction ASSOCIATED HAIR STRUCTURES o Impetigo Hair follicle ▪ Caused by bacterial infection o Dermal and epidermal o Psoriasis ▪ Cause is unknown sheath surround hair root ▪ Triggered by trauma, infection, stress Arrector pilli o Smooth muscle Burns o Tissue damage and cell death caused by Sebaceous gland heat, electricity, UV radiation, or chemicals Sweat gland o Associated dangers ▪ Dehydration APPENDAGES OF THE SKIN ▪ Electrolyte imbalance Nails ▪ Circulatory shock o Scale-like modifications of the epidermis ▪ Heavily keratinized VII. RULE OF NINES o Stratum basale extends beneath the nail bed Way to determine the extent of burns ▪ Responsible for growth Body is divided into 11 areas for quick estimation o Lack of pigment makes them colorless o Each area represents about 9% HUMAN ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY TERM MC1: BSN-1E LECTURE TRANSES BY: AYA SABAS 01 SKIN CANCER TYPES Basal cell carcinoma o Least malignant o Most common type o Arises from stratum basale Squamous cell carcinoma o Arises from stratum spinosum o Metastasizes to lymph nodes o Early removal allows a good chance of cure Malignant melanoma o Most deadly of skin cancers o Cancer of melanocytes o Metastasizes rapidly to lymph and blood SEVERITY OF BURNS vessels First-degree burns o Detection uses ABCD rule o Only epidermis is damaged o Skin is red and swollen Second-degree burns ABCD RULE o Epidermis and upper dermis are damaged A = Asymmetry o Skin is red with blisters o Two sides of pigmented mole do not match Third-degree burns B = Border irregularity o Destroys entire skin layer o Borders of mole are not smooth o Burn is gray-white or black C = Color CRITICAL BURNS o Different colors in pigmented area D = Diameter Burns are considered critical if: o Spot is larger then 6 mm in diameter o Over 25% of body has second degree burns o Over 10% of the body has third degree burns o There are third degree burns of the face, hands, or feet VIII. SKIN CANCER Cancer – abnormal cell mass Two types o Benign ▪ Does not spread (encapsulated) o Malignant ▪ Metastasized (moves) to other parts of the body Skin cancer is the most common type of cancer HUMAN ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY TERM MC1: BSN-1E LECTURE TRANSES BY: AYA SABAS 01 CLASSIFICATION OF BONES CHAPTER 5: THE SKELETAL SYSTEM Long bones Parts of the skeletal system o Typically, longer than wide o Bones (skeleton) o Have a shaft with heads at both ends o Joints o Contains mostly compact bone o Cartilages ▪ Examples: Femur, humerus o Ligaments Short bones Divided into two divisions o Generally, cube-shape o Axial skeleton o Contain mostly spongy bone o Appendicular skeleton ▪ Examples: Carpals, tarsals Flat bones I. FUNCTION OF BONES o Thin and flattened o Usually curved Support of the body o Thin layers of compact bone around a Protection of soft organs layer of spongy bone Movement due to attached skeletal muscles ▪ Examples: skull, ribs, sternum Storage of minerals and fats Irregular bones Blood cell formation o Irregular shape o Do not fit into other bone classification BONES OF THE HUMAN BODY categories The adult skeleton has 206 bones ▪ Example: vertebrae and hip Two basic types of bone tissue o Compact bone ▪ Homogeneous II. GROSS ANATOMY OF A LONG BONE o Spongy bone Diaphysis ▪ Small needle-like pieces of bone o Shaft ▪ Many open spaces o Composed of compact bone Epiphysis o Ends of the bone o Composed CLASSIFICAION OF BONES ON THE BASIS OF mostly of spongy SHAPE bone STRUCTURES OF A LONG BONE Periosteum o Outside covering of the diaphysis o Fibrous connective tissue membrane Sharpey’s fibers o Secure periosteum to underlying bone Arteries o Supply bone cells with nutrient HUMAN ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY TERM MC1: BSN-1E LECTURE TRANSES BY: AYA SABAS 01 Articular cartilage Lacunae o Covers the o Cavities containing bone cells (osteocytes) external surface o Arranged in concentric rings of the epiphyses Lamellae o Made of hyaline o Rings around the cartilage central canal o Decrease friction o Sites of lacunae at joint surfaces Canaliculi Medullary cavity o Tiny canals o Cavity of the shaft o Radiate from the o Contains yellow marrow (mostly fat) in adults central canal to o Contains red marrow (for blood cell lacunae formation) in infants o Form a transport system III. BONE MARKINGS CHANGES IN THE HUMAN SKELETON Surface features of bones In embryos, the skeleton is primarily hyaline cartilage Sites of attachments for muscles, tendons, and During development, much of this cartilage is ligaments replaced by bone Passages for nerves and blood vessels Cartilage remains in isolated areas Categories of bone markings o Bridge of the nose o Projections and processes – grow out from o Parts of ribs the bone surface o Joints o Depressions or cavities – indentations BONE GROWTH MICROSCOPIC ANATOMY OF BONE Epiphyseal plates allow for growth of long bone Osteon (Haversian System) during childhood o A unit of bone o New cartilage is continuously formed Central (Haversian) canal o Older cartilage becomes ossified o Opening in the center of an osteon ▪ Cartilage is broken down o Carries blood vessels and nerves ▪ Bone replaces cartilage Perforating (Volkman’s) canal Bones are remodeled and lengthened until growth o Canal perpendicular to the central canal stops o Carrier blood vessels and nerves o Bones change shape somewhat o Bones grow in width HUMAN ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY TERM MC1: BSN-1E LECTURE TRANSES BY: AYA SABAS 01 LONG BONE FORMATION AND GROWTH o Open (compound) fracture – broken bone penetrates through skin Bone fractures are treated by reduction and immobilization o Realignment of the bone COMMON TYPES OF FRACTURES REPAIR OF BONE FRACTURES Hematoma (blood-filled swelling) is formed Break is splinted by fibrocartilage to form a callus Fibrocartilage callus is replaced by a bony callus Bony callus is remodeled to form a permanent patch STAGES IN THE HEALING OF A BONE FACTURE IV. TYPES OF BONE CELLS Osteocytes o Mature bone cells Osteoblasts o Bone-destroying cells o Break down bone matrix for remolding and release of calcium Bone remodeling is a process by both osteoblasts and osteoclasts VI. AXIAL SKELETON Forms the longitudinal part of the body V. BONE FRACTURES Divided into three parts o Skull A break in a bone o Vertebral column Types of bone fractures o Bony thorax o Closed (simple) fracture – break that does not penetrate the skin HUMAN ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY TERM MC1: BSN-1E LECTURE TRANSES BY: AYA SABAS 01 BONES OF THE SKULL VII. THE SKULL Two sets of bones HUMAN SKULL, INFERIOR VIEW o Cranium o Facial bones Bones are joined by sutures Only the mandible is attached by a freely movable joint VIII. PARANASAL SINUSES HUMAN SKULL, SUPERIOR VIEW Hollow portions of bones surrounding the nasal cavity Functions of paranal sinuses o Lighten the skull o Give resonance and amplification to voice HUMAN ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY TERM MC1: BSN-1E LECTURE TRANSES BY: AYA SABAS 01 STRUCTURE OF A TYPICAL VERTEBRAE IX. THE HYOID BONE The only bone that does not articulate with another bone Serves as a movable base for the tongue X. THE FETAL SKULL The fetal skull is large compared to the infants’ total REGIONAL CHARACTERISTICS OF VERTEBRAE body length Fontanelles – fibrous membranes connecting the cranial bones o Allow the brain to grow o Convert to bone within 24 months after birth XI. THE VERTEBRAL COLUMN Vertebrae separated by intervertebral discs The spine has a normal curvature Each vertebrae is given a name according to its location XII. THE BONY THORAX Forms a cage to protect major organs Made-up of three parts o Sternum o Ribs o Thoracic vertebrae HUMAN ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY TERM MC1: BSN-1E LECTURE TRANSES BY: AYA SABAS 01 XIII. THE APPENDICULAR SKELETON BONES OF THE UPPER LIMB The arm is formed by a single bone Limbs (appendages) o Humerus Pectoral girdle The forearm has two Pelvic girdle bones o Ulna o Radius THE PECTORAL (SHOULDER) GIRDLE The hand Composed of two bones o Carpals – wrist o Clavicle – collarbone o Metacarpals – o Scapula – shoulder blade palm These bones allow the upper limb to have o Phalanges – exceptionally free movement fingers BONES OF THE SHOULDER GIRDLE BONES OF THE PELVIC GIRDLE Hip bone Composed of three pair of fused bones o Ilium o Ischium o Pubic bone HUMAN ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY TERM MC1: BSN-1E LECTURE TRANSES BY: AYA SABAS 01 The total weight of the upper body rests on the pelvis XV. BONES OF THE LOWER LIMBS Protects several organs o Reproductive organs The thigh has one bone o Urinary bladder o Femur – thigh o Part of the large intestine bone The leg has two bones XIV. THE PELVIS o Tibia o Fibula The foot Tarsus – ankle Metatarsals – sole Phalanges – toes THE PELVIS: RIGHT COXAL BONES ARCHES OF THE FOOT Bones of the foot are arranged to form three strong arches o Two longitudinal o One transverse GENDER DIFFERENCES OF THE PELVIS