Chapter 1 Origin and Structure of the Earth (Monday Class) PDF

Chapter 1 Earth Science Origin and Structure of Earth  1.1 Origin of the Universe and the Solar System The Earth and other planets were formed at the same time according to the beliefs of many rese...

Chapter 1 Earth Science Origin and Structure of Earth  1.1 Origin of the Universe and the Solar System The Earth and other planets were formed at the same time according to the beliefs of many researchers The Big Bang Theory The universe began approximately 13.8 billion years ago from a singularity—a point of infinite density and temperature, leading to its current state. The universe has been expanding since its inception, evidenced by the observed redshift of distant galaxies and the cosmic microwave background radiation. Georges Lemaître Was there an explosion in the Big Bang Theory?  Proof for Big Bang Theory Redshift – An indication that distant galaxies are receding from Earth at an increasing velocity Cosmic microwave background (CMBR) – The electromagnetic radiation left from an early stage of the universe. It was discovered by Arno Penzias and Robert Wilson in 1964. Steady State Theory Proposed by Fred Hoyle, Thomas Gold, Herman Bondi et al. It states that the universe has been present ever since. It has no beginning and no end, and has been expanding constantly. Matter is continually being created to keep the universe’s density constant.  Pulsating Theory This theory states that the universe follows infinite self-sustaining cycles such as expanding and contracting. After the universe has contracted to a certain size, explosion occurs, and the universe will start expanding. Also called, “Oscillating or Cylic Model. Proponents: Paul Steinhardt, Neil Turok, Roger Penrose Alternative Theories to Standard Models Ekpyrotic Theory (Multiverse Theory) Parallel universes exist and occasionally interact with each other Universes collide repeatedly, giving rise to a new universe with each collision  Black Holes The theory suggests that the universe could have originated from a singularity, a point of infinite density similar to what is found at the center of black holes. This idea posits that the Big Bang, which marked the beginning of our universe, might have been the result of a black hole collapsing in a higher-dimensional space. “Matrix” Theory The universe is a computer simulation. Creation of Worlds by Quantum Theory “Web of universes” The universe is not one but many. A collision between two universes gives rise to a new one. The __________ is a theory that explains the origin of the universe from a singularity. __________ was the scientist who proposed the concept of the expanding universe. __________ are regions in space with gravitational fields so intense that not even light can escape. The __________ proposes that our universe might be one of many universes existing simultaneously. __________ is a concept in physics and cosmology that suggests the universe could be described as a complex computer simulation, where fundamental particles and forces are represented by matrices. According to the __________, the universe undergoes a cyclical process of expansion and contraction. __________ refers to the shifting of light toward the red end of the spectrum from distant galaxies, indicating an expanding universe. Finally, __________ is the residual thermal radiation from the early universe, providing crucial evidence for the Big Bang Theory. Answers: 1. Big Bang Theory 2. Georges Lemaître 3. Black Holes 4. Multiverse Theory 5. Matrix Theory 6. Pulsating Theory 7. Redshift 8. Cosmic Background Radiation Origin of the Solar System The Solar System  The Sun The Sun is the central star of our solar system, providing essential light and heat that sustain life on Earth. Its gravitational pull keeps Earth and other planets in orbit, while its energy drives weather and climate patterns.  Terrestrials Gas Giants  Mercury The closest planet to the Sun, characterized by its extreme temperature variations and lack of a significant atmosphere. Its surface is marked by craters and has a very slow rotation relative to its orbit around the Sun. Venus The second planet from the Sun and is known for its thick, toxic atmosphere and intense surface temperatures due to a runaway greenhouse effect. Its surface is obscured by dense clouds, making it one of the brightest objects in the night sky. Earth The third planet from the Sun, featuring diverse ecosystems and liquid water. It supports life and has a dynamic atmosphere that influences weather and climate. Moon Earth's only natural satellite, characterized by its surface covered in craters, mountains, and plains. It affects Earth's tides through gravitational interactions and has phases resulting from its orbit around Earth.  Mars The fourth planet from the Sun, known for its reddish appearance due to iron oxide on its surface. It has the largest volcano and canyon in the solar system and has potential signs of past water activity.  Jupiter The largest planet in the solar system, distinguished by its Great Red Spot, a massive storm, and its prominent banded cloud structure. It has a strong magnetic field and a large number of moons, including the largest moon, Ganymede. sATURN Renowned for its stunning ring system, composed of ice and rock particles. It is the second-largest planet in the solar system and has a collection of moons, including Titan, which has a thick atmosphere.  Uranus Neptune The seventh planet from the Sun, The eighth planet from the Sun, known notable for its extreme tilt on its axis, for its deep blue color due to methane causing its poles to face the Sun. It has in its atmosphere. It has a dynamic a faint ring system and is composed weather system with strong winds and mainly of ice and gas. the Great Dark Spot, a large storm. Category Objects Quantity Sun Sun 1 Planets Mercury, Venus, Earth, Mars, Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus, Neptune 8 Earth's Moon, Phobos and Deimos (Mars), Europa, Ganymede, Io, Moons Over 200 (known) Callisto (Jupiter), Titan, Enceladus (Saturn), Triton (Neptune) Dwarf Planets Pluto, Eris, Haumea, Makemake, Ceres 5 (officially recognized) Ceres (also classified as a dwarf planet), Vesta, Pallas, Hygiea, Asteroids numerous smaller asteroids in the Asteroid Belt and more in the Over 150 million Kuiper Belt Halley's Comet, Comet Hale-Bopp, Comet NEOWISE, Comet Comets Millions Encke, Comet Hyakutake, millions more in the Oort Cloud Hypothetical cloud of icy bodies at the edge of the Solar System, Oort Cloud Estimated trillions believed to be the source of long-period comets  Solar Nebular Theory It suggests that the Sun and planets formed from a rotating cloud of gas and dust, called the solar nebula, which gradually collapsed under gravity, leading to the creation of the Sun at the center and planets from the remaining material. Planetesimals are small, solid objects formed in the early solar nebula that combined to create planets. The frost line is the distance from the Sun where it was cold enough for ices to form, leading to the formation of gas giants beyond it. Condensation Theory Also called, “dust cloud theory” and “protoplanets theory”. Universe began from a nebula which later condensed and eventually became planets. With nuclear fusion, a star was born. Our Sun. Unlike Solar Nebula Theory, it has an absence of supernova input. Planetesimal Theory Also called, “collision theory”. Does not explain how our sun was formed. A nearby star collided with ours and this cataclysmic event gives birth to our solar system.  Tidal Theory Also called, “near collision theory or hypothesis or encounter theory”. Does not explain how our sun was formed. A nearby star almost collided with our sun and this event , stellar matter from our sun thrown out into space which would eventually become the planets. Capture Theory Our sun captured stellar matter from a nearby smaller star and this stellar matter began to orbit the sun which would eventually become the planets through condensation and accretion. The __________ explains the formation of the Solar System, suggesting that the Sun and planets formed from a rotating cloud of gas and dust. The __________ is a distant, spherical shell of icy objects surrounding the Solar System, believed to be the source of long-period comets. A __________ is a massive stellar explosion that can trigger the formation of new stars and planetary systems. The __________ proposes that planets and moons were captured by the gravitational pull of a star or planet after forming elsewhere. According to the __________, small solid bodies in the early solar system collided and merged to form planets. The __________ is the region around a star where conditions are suitable for liquid water to exist, making it potentially supportive of life.  Answers: 1. Solar Nebular Theory 2. Oort Cloud 3. Supernova 4. Capture Theory 5. Planetesimal Theory 6. Habitable Zone  SEATWORK #1:"UNIVERSE ORIGINS: CREATE YOUR OWN THEORY" For this activity, you will design your own idea of how the universe begins. Draw your concept on a short bond paper, including any elements from existing theories or your own imagination. Be sure to label each part of your drawing. On the back of your paper, provide a brief description explaining your idea and why you think it is a plausible explanation for the universe's origin. If you choose to color your drawing, you will earn higher points. Earth It is the only known planet that can support life. It is composed of 70% water, which is why it is sometimes called as the water planet or blue planet. Conditions that Support Life on Earth Neither too hot nor too cold Has both air and water Presence of oxygen in the air Has the right amount of distance from the Sun (circumstellar habitable zone) Has protective atmosphere  Habitable zone- the region around a star where conditions are just right for liquid water to exist on a planet's surface, making it potentially suitable for life. Stable climate and temperature Earth has a climate and temperature that are remarkably stable when compared with those of other planets. The average temperature of Earth’s surface is 20°C.  Latest Discoveries About the Solar System A. Living organisms may have been flourishing in Mars in the past B. Asteroids orbiting our Sun could impact Earth which would lead to our extinction. C. The Sun with its solar storms and sunspots, could significantly disrupt life in our planet and effect climate change. D. Saturn’s moon Enceladus was discovered to have a saltwater ocean below it’s frozen surfaces. Mars Exploration The keen interest NASA devotes to Mars exploration arises from the possibility of finding life on Mars, or finding evidence life may have flourished in the red planet in the past. Asteroids as Astronomical Hazards Asteroid already struck our planet in the past and caused massive extinction of living things. Earth always faces a potentially catastrophic encounter with asteroids that orbit the Sun. The possibility is not entirely remote, because the surface of the moon itself reveals telltale evidence of frequent asteroids impact in our planet’s neighborhood. Solar Storms and Sunspots The sun also emits high energy particles called, solar flares – a sudden flash of brightness near the surface of the sun which are harmful to organisms. It is known to affect radio signals which disrupt wireless communication. Sunspots are dark patches on the Sun’s surface that appear from time to time. They are regions of intense magnetic field that fives rise to solar flares and coronal mass ejections.  Geosphere (Lithosphere) It makes up the solid portion of the Earth, It includes the non-living land features  Hydrosphere It is composed of all the waters on or near the Earth’s surface. It includes oceans, rivers, and lakes Cryosphere Earth’s hydrosphere can be in a form of liquid, vapor, and ice such as glaciers, ice caps, and icebergs.  Atmosphere It composes the air we breathe and the blanket of gas that surrounds our planet up to the edge of the space. Earth’s atmosphere: 78% Nitrogen, 21% Oxygen, and the rest are Argon, Carbon dioxide, methane, and trace elements of inert gases. Through Rayleigh scattering, the atmosphere also scatters high frequency light waves reducing their intensity when they reach the Earth’s biosphere.  OF THE ATMOS RS PHE YE R A E L LAYERS OF EARTH'S ATMOSPHERE Troposphere Stratosphere Mesosphere Thermosphere Exosphere  TROPOSPHERE The troposphere is the lowest layer of Earth's atmosphere, extending from the surface up to about 8-15 kilometers (5-9 miles) in altitude. It is where weather occurs and where most of the atmosphere's mass, including water vapor and pollutants, is found.  er STRATOSPHERE ay eL Ozon The stratosphere is the layer of Earth's atmosphere located above yer the troposphere and extending from La about 15 to 50 kilometers (9 to 31 e miles) above the surface. It contains on the ozone layer, which absorbs and Oz scatters ultraviolet solar radiation, er protecting life on Earth from harmful ay L UV rays. ne zo O  MESOSPHERE The mesosphere is the layer of Earth's atmosphere situated above the stratosphere and below the thermosphere, extending from about 50 to 85 kilometers (31 to 53 miles) above the surface. It is characterized by decreasing temperatures with altitude, and it is where most meteorites burn up upon entering the atmosphere.  THERMOSPHERE The thermosphere is the layer of Earth's atmosphere located above the mesosphere and extending from about 85 kilometers (53 miles) to 600 kilometers (373 miles) above the surface. It is characterized by a dramatic increase in temperature with altitude, and it contains the ionosphere, where auroras occur and radio waves are reflected back to Earth.  EXOSPHERE The exosphere is the outermost layer of Earth's atmosphere, extending from about 600 kilometers (373 miles) above the surface to the edge of space. In this layer, atmospheric particles are extremely sparse and gradually transition into the vacuum of space, making it where satellites orbit and where the atmosphere merges with outer space. The __________ is situated above the stratosphere and extends from about 50 to 85 kilometers (31 to 53 miles), where most meteorites burn up. The __________ is the outermost layer, extending from about 600 kilometers (373 miles) to the edge of space, where atmospheric particles gradually transition into space. The __________ is located above the mesosphere, from about 85 kilometers (53 miles) to 600 kilometers (373 miles), and features a significant increase in temperature with altitude. The __________ extends from approximately 15 to 50 kilometers (9 to 31 miles) and contains the ozone layer. The __________ is the layer closest to Earth's surface, extending up to about 8-15 kilometers (5-9 miles) and where weather occurs.  Answers: 1. Mesosphere 2. Exosphere 3. Thermosphere 4. Stratosphere 5. Troposphere  Biosphere “zone of life” It is the part of the Earth where life exists It produces the succession of life forms needed to keep the planet inhabitable How do Earth’s spheres interact?  Open system – where matter and energy are exchanged with the surroundings. Closed system – where only energy but not matter is exchange with the surroundings. Earth is a closed system, but its subsystems are open. The __________ includes all living organisms on Earth and their interactions with each other and their environments. The __________ refers to the solid part of Earth, including the crust and mantle. The __________ encompasses all the frozen water on Earth, including glaciers and polar ice. The __________ is the layer of gases surrounding Earth, essential for sustaining life. An __________ is a system that exchanges both energy and matter with its surroundings. A __________ is a system that exchanges only energy, not matter, with its surroundings.  Answers: 1. Biosphere 2. Geosphere 3. Cryosphere 4. Atmosphere 5. Open System 6. Closed System SOME SCIENTISTS AND THEIR CONTRIBUTIONS IN THE STUDY OF EARTH SYSTEMS Alexander von Humboldt (1769-1859) Father of Modern Geography. A German explorer and naturalist. His most important ideas are the following: a) The physical conditions of an environment affect the distribution of plants and animals. b) He laid the foundations for the modern science of climatology. c) He championed a quantitative approach to studying nature. d) Humboldt’s magnum opus was Kosmos, it was the most comprehensive publication about the universe of its time. Charles Lyell (1797- 1875) Charles Lyell was a pioneering geologist who popularized the concept of uniformitarianism, the idea that Earth's geological features were shaped by continuous and consistent processes over long periods of time. He authored the influential book "Principles of Geology," which greatly influenced the scientific community, including Charles Darwin. UNIFORMITARIANISM Charles Darwin (1809-1882) Charles Darwin was an English naturalist who developed the theory of evolution by natural selection. His work revolutionized biology by explaining how species adapt and evolve over time.  Alfred Wegener was a German scientist who Alfred proposed the theory of continental drift, Wegener arguing that Earth's continents were once joined and have since drifted apart. His ideas were (1880-1930) foundational to the modern theory of plate tectonics.