Introduction to Sociocultural Anthropology PDF

Introduction to Sociocultural Anthropology CHAPTER ONE INTRODUCTION Learning Objectives After completing this Chapter, the students are expected to: Define anthropology and describe its basic concerns and subject matter; Describe t...

Introduction to Sociocultural Anthropology CHAPTER ONE INTRODUCTION Learning Objectives After completing this Chapter, the students are expected to: Define anthropology and describe its basic concerns and subject matter; Describe the different sub-fields of anthropology; Explain how and why sociocultural anthropology as a science emerged; Appreciate the contributions and applications of anthropology in personal and professional lives; and Compare and contrast anthropology with other related behavioral or social sciences. 1.1. What is Anthropology? The term anthropology is a combination of two words derived from Greek language: anthropos and logos. The term anthropos is equivalent to the word mankind or human being, while logos means study or science. So 1 Introduction to Sociocultural Anthropology putting the two words together, anthropology is the study or science of mankind or humanity. The following are two important, simple, definitions of anthropology: Box 1.1. A simple definition of anthropology Anthropology is the study or science of mankind or humanity Anthropology is the study of humanity. Anthropology is a broad scientific discipline dedicated to the comparative study of humans as a group, from its first appearance on earth to its present stage of development. In a more specific term, anthropology is science which: Investigates the strategies for living that are learned and shared by people as members of human social groups; Examines the characteristics that human beings share as members of one species (homo sapiens) and the diverse ways that people live in different environments; and 2 Introduction to Sociocultural Anthropology Analyzes the products of social groups: material objects (tools, cloths, houses, etc) and non- material creations (beliefs, values, practices, institutions, etc). (World Book Encyclopedia. Vol.1 PP. 545-548) It should further be stressed that anthropology focuses on (1) the origin of humans, (2) the evolutionary development of humans, (3) human physical, bio- chemical and cultural variations, and (4) the material possessions and cultural heritages of humans. Anthropology seeks to explain how and why people are both similar and different through examination of our biological and cultural past and comparative study of contemporary human societies (Howard and Dunaif- Hattis, 1992:3). Howard and Dunaif-Hattis (1992) further note that: Anthropology’s ultimate goal is to develop an integrated picture of humankind—a goal that encompasses an almost infinite number of questions about all aspects of our existence. We ask, for example, what makes us human? Why do some groups of people tend to be tall and 3 Introduction to Sociocultural Anthropology lanky, while others tend to be short and stocky? Why do some groups of people practice agriculture, while others hunt for a living? Anthropologists are interested in all things human. (P.3) Anthropology has a strong affinity with natural sciences as well. In fact, anthropology is well known by that aspect of it which is mainly concerned with the biological/ physical dimensions of mankind as a biological being in group context. Hence, it may be inappropriate to say that anthropology is only a social science. It is also a natural science, not in the sense that it deals with the natural phenomenon or man as an individual entity per se, but in the sense that one of its main interests is to study man and man's behavior as a product of the natural processes, and in the context of the animal kingdom (Scupin and DeCorse, 1995). 1.1.1. Misconceptions about Anthropology There are a number of misconceptions associated with anthropology due to lack of appropriate awareness of its nature. The following are some of the misconceptions 4 Introduction to Sociocultural Anthropology (adapted from lectures by my undergraduate anthropology instructor): ™ One misconception about anthropology is related to the area of its study. It is said that anthropology is limited to the study of "primitive" societies. Indeed, most of the works done by anthropologists during early periods focused on isolated, "primitive", small- scale societies. However, anthropologists nowadays study the advanced, complex societies as well. ™ Another misconception is that anthropologists only study the rural people and rural areas. True, most of the works conducted focused on rural areas. But now, anthropologists are also interested in the study of urban people and urban areas. There is a distinct sub-discipline devoted to the study of urban societies -urban anthropology-which focuses on small-scale society in a complex city. ™ It is claimed that anthropologists are only interested in the study of far away, remote exotic communities living isolated from the influences of modernization. True, most anthropologists go to fieldwork to an 5 Introduction to Sociocultural Anthropology isolated people in a distant corner. But now anthropologists are interested in home anthropology, studying anthropology at home, i.e., in one's own society. ™ It is also said that the purpose of anthropology is to study in order to keep and preserve primitive, defunct cultural practices in museums and anthropologists are advocates of defunct, obsolete culture. True, when anthropologists study "primitive" society, they study the culture of the people, to reconstruct it, to give meaning to the peculiar behaviors of people. However, anthropologists do not defend "primitiveness"; they play a great role in bringing about positive change and development in the lives of people. 6 Introduction to Sociocultural Anthropology Box 1.2. Four misconceptions about anthropology 1. Anthropology is limited to the study of "primitive" societies. 2. Anthropologists only study the rural people and rural areas. 3. Anthropologists are only interested in the study of far away, remote exotic communities living isolated from the influences of modernization. 4. Anthropology wants to keep and preserve primitive, defunct cultural practices in museums and anthropologists are advocates of defunct, obsolete culture. 1.2 Brief Historical Overview of Anthropology The facts of the incredibly diverse and at the same time essentially similar nature of humans over time and space have intrigued curious-minded people over the century. The history of anthropological thought is replete with many and varied ideas, some of which often were wild extremes resulting from ethnocentric attitudes. Before anthropology attained the status of scientific 7 Introduction to Sociocultural Anthropology discipline curious-minded persons from ancient to medieval times have speculated a lot about the issues and problems that concern anthropologists today (Hodgen, 1964). That is, the present academic anthropology has its roots in the works and ideas of the great ancient and Medieval Greek, Roman, and Hebrew philosophers and social thinkers. These people were interested in the nature, origin and destiny of man, and the morality and ethics of human relationships While the roots of (socio-cultural) anthropology can be generally traced through the history of western culture as far back as ancient Greek social philosophical thinking, the discipline did not emerge as distinct field of study until the mid-nineteenth century. Anthropology as an academic discipline was born during the 19th century (see The New Encyclopedia Britannica (Macropedia). Vol. 27 PP.326-331). Anthropology as academic discipline was born out of the intellectual atmosphere of that is called the Enlightenment, which is the eighteenth century social philosophical movement that emphasized human progress and the poser of reason, and based on 8 Introduction to Sociocultural Anthropology Darwinian Theory of Evolution (Scupin and DeCorse, 1995). According to Howard and Dunaif-Hattis (1992:362): By the late 1870s, anthropology was beginning to emerge as a profession. A major impetus for its growth was the expansion of western colonial powers and their consequent desire to better understand the peoples living under colonial domination. In the United States, for example, the government sought information on Native American peoples who were being subdued and placed on reservations. As the tribes were subdued, anthropologists were employed to help devise means to administer these people. … [H]owever, many anthropologists were motivated by the desire to record local customs before they disappeared and were forgotten…. Anthropology became a profession primarily in museums, During the 1870s and 1880s many museums devoted to the study of humankind were founded in Europe, North America and South America…. Anthropology’s link with museums influenced its development throughout the late nineteenth and 9 Introduction to Sociocultural Anthropology early twentieth centuries… Professionalization during the latter part of nineteenth and early twentieth centuries made great breakthroughs in the quality and quantity of ethnographic research…. Early anthropologists mainly studied small communities in technologically simple societies. Such societies are often called by various names, such as, traditional, non- industrialized or simple societies. Anthropologists of the early 1900s emphasized the study of social and cultural differences among human groups. Here, many of the indigenous peoples of the non-western world and their social and cultural features were studied in detail and documented. This approach is called ethnography. By the mid-1900, however, anthropologists attempted to discover universal human patterns and the common bio- psychological traits that bind all human beings. This approach is called ethnology. Ethnology aims at the comparative understanding and analysis of different ethnic groups across time and space (Kottak, 2002; Scupin and DeCorse, 1995). 10 Introduction to Sociocultural Anthropology Box 1.3. Difference between ethnography and ethnology Ethnography: description of the culture of a certain group of people. Ethnology: Anthropological attempt to discover universal human patterns and the common bio- psychological traits that bind all human beings. 1.3. Subject Matter and Scope of Anthropology The subject matter of anthropology is very vast. The subject covers all aspects of human ways of life and culture, as humans live in a social group relationship. Discovering the meaning, nature, origin, and destiny of humanity is one of the key concerns of anthropology. According to the present stage of scientific knowledge attained in anthropology, the term humanity or mankind is a very difficult term to define. Anthropologists seem to be unsure whether humanity is absolutely dichotomous with other lower forms of animals. Some may even tend to regard humanity and non-humanity as something that is best understood in the form of continuum. This sense of continuum may be particularly in terms of time scale. Thus, the farther we go in time backwards, the narrower 11 Introduction to Sociocultural Anthropology becomes the difference between humanity and non- humanity. It has now become a generally accepted fact in anthropology, although no full evidences are forthcoming, that humanity is a product of the evolutionary processes, and that humans have evolved from their closest living primates (Bryan, 1997; Behe, 1996). Anthropology is interested in some of the following questions and issues about humans: Where did human species come from (i.e. what are the origins of mankind)? Were human beings created in the image and likeness of God, or were they just the products of millions of years of the natural, evolutionary process? In what ways does man differ from other animal species? How did mankind arrive at the present stage of biological, intellectual, and cultural development? 12 Introduction to Sociocultural Anthropology Is there a common human nature, and if so, what is it like? In what ways do humans who live in various times and places differ? How can we explain why cultures vary? Such and many other related questions are the concerns of anthropology. Anthropologists try to know and explain about the technological, economic, political and intellectual development of humanity. They attempt to discover the extent to which different human populations vary in their biological and social characteristics and to understand why these differences exist. Anthropologists are, for example, interested to know and explain why a pregnant woman in Gumuz goes to a bush to give birth during labor, how the Nuer practice birth control methods and why they put horizontal line marks on their forehead, or why the Wolayta put a circular body mark on their cheek while the Tigreans put a cross mark on their foreheads, etc. 13 Introduction to Sociocultural Anthropology Although anthropologists investigate the distinctive features of different cultures, they also study the fundamental similarities among people throughout the world (Scupin and De Corse, 1995). They try to find out what factors account for the similarities in certain beliefs, practices and institutions that are found across cultures. They grapple with explaining why cultural universals exist. Are these cultural similarities results of diffusion (i.e., a certain material culture or non-material culture created in a certain society diffuses to other societies through contact, war, trade, etc)? Or are they due to independent creation (i.e., certain cultural items created by two or more societies without one copying from the other)? Anthropologists have debated taking different sides while attempting to answer these questions. 1.4. Distinguishing Features of Anthropology We may identify five distinguishing marks of anthropology: 1. Its Broad Scope The main distinguishing characteristic of anthropology, the thing that makes it different from the many other fields that also include people as their subject mater is 14  Introduction to Sociocultural Anthropology its broad scope. A good way to emphasize this broad scope is to say that anthropologists are interested in all human beings, whether living or dead, ''primitive'' or '' civilized'' and that they are interested in many different aspects of humans, including their skin color, family lives, marriages, political systems, tools, personality types, and languages. No place or time is too remote to escape the anthropologist's notice. No dimension of human kind, from genes to art styles, is outside the anthropologist's attention (Kottak, 1994, 2002; Howard and Dunaif-Hattis, 1992) 2. Its Unique Approaches I. Anthropology is Holistic: Studying one aspect of the ways of life of a group of people by relating it to other complex related aspects of life. II. Anthropology is Relativistic: Anthropology tries to study and explain a certain belief, practice or institution of a group of people in its own context. It does not make value judgment, i.e., declaring that ‘this belief or practice is good’ or ‘that is bad.’ III. Anthropology is Comparative: Anthropology studies certain aspects of the culture of a group of people by comparing it across societies and different times; i.e., 15 Introduction to Sociocultural Anthropology the present with the past, the modern with the traditional, etc. 3. Emphasis on Insiders' View: Anthropologists focus on how the people themselves understand about their world, how a particular group of people explains about the world, etc. This is what anthropologists call emic perspective. 4. The Micro-focus: This is another distinguishing mark of anthropology. Anthropology focuses on small-scale society or community. The kinds of social groups or communities anthropologists study, whether they are in traditional or modern world, are usually small scaled in their social organization, economic and political structure, and tend to be homogenous in their overall character. 5. Its Method of Research: The hallmarks of anthropology are qualitative research methods such as extended fieldwork, focus- group discussion, participant observation, in-depth and key informant interviews. Although these methods are now practiced in other behavioral sciences as well, 16 Introduction to Sociocultural Anthropology no other discipline seems to be so associated with and employs such methods as anthropologists. Box 1.4. Distinguishing features of anthropology 1. Its broad scope 2. Its unique approaches: Holism, relativism and comparativism 3. Emphasis on insider’s view 4. The micro-focus 5. Its methods of research: emphasis on extended field work 1.5. Sub-fields of Anthropology As indicated earlier, the interests and subject- matter of anthropology are wide-ranging. This broad discipline is usually divided in four main sub-fields. These are: physical anthropology, sociocultural anthropology, linguistic anthropology and archaeological anthropology. Sometimes, applied anthropology is added as a fifth sub-field. A brief discussion of the four major sub-fields is as follows. 17 Introduction to Sociocultural Anthropology 1.5.1. Physical Anthropology Physical anthropology is the branch of anthropology most closely related to the natural sciences, particularly biology; that is why it is often called biological anthropology (Scupin and DeCorse, 1995; Howard and Dunaif-Hattis, 1992). It studies the biological dimensions of human beings, including biological evolution, the physical variations between contemporary populations, and the biology and behavior of non-human primates. Physical anthropology itself is further divided into three special fields of study: paleoanthropology, primatology and anthropometry. Paleoanthropology: is a subspecialty in physical anthropology which is interested in the search for fossil remains from prehistoric times to trace the development of outstanding human physical, social and cultural characteristics. Paleoanthropology is the study of human evolution through analysis of fossil remains. Paleoanthropologists use a variety of sophisticated techniques to date, clarify and compare fossil bones to determine the links between modern humans and their biological ancestors (ibid. p3) 18 Introduction to Sociocultural Anthropology Despite the highly acclaimed Darwinian theory of human origins, that humans are evolved from lower life forms, it may be appropriate to state that many writers in the evolutionary circle argue that there are limits to fossil evidences and paleoanthropology has many problems to tackle (Behe, 1996). As Bryan (1995) suggests, the great theory of Darwinian Evolution rests on so little evidence. Paleoanthropologists are aware of this limitation but textbook accounts of origins of human beings tend to neglect them. Primatology: The study of the biology and behavior of primates, that is, the animals that most closely resemble human beings in terms of physiological and anatomical structure, is an important field in physical anthropology. Primatologists observe primates such as gorillas, chimpanzees, gibbons, and orangutans in their natural habitats to ascertain the similarities and differences between these other primates and humans (ibid, same page). Primatological research helps us understand what human beings share with other animals, what makes 19 Introduction to Sociocultural Anthropology them part of the natural world and their unique characteristics (Howard and Dunaif-Hattis, 1992). Anthropometry: The study of human variations within and among different populations in time and space, human ecology, population genetics, etc make up the central concerns of this sub-branch of physical anthropology. These physical differences may be in terms of blood types, skin colors, skull shape, facial shape, hair texture, and the like. Anthropometry shades some light on how differing physical characteristics have helped human groups adapt different geographical environments. Population genetics, the study of biological inheritance plays an important role in anthropometry, what is sometimes termed as biological anthropology (Scupin and DeCorse, 1995; Howard and Dunaif-Hattis, 1992). The investigation of human variations among living populations has led to the application of the knowledge in solving practical problems. The development of a specialty known as forensic anthropology is one of the results of these attempts. Forensic anthropology is the identification of human skeletal remains for medical and 20 Introduction to Sociocultural Anthropology legal purposes. Forensic anthropologists work often with other forensic specialists in aiding criminal investigations. Forensic anthropologists attempt to determine the sex, age at death, ancestral background, and stature of the deceased individual. Using this knowledge, forensic anthropologists identify crash victims, war causalities, homicide victims, and skeletal remains in unmarked graves (Howard and Dunaif-Hattis, 1992; Scupin and DeCorse, 1995; Kotttak, 2002). 1.5.2. Sociocultural Anthropology This is also often called social anthropology or cultural anthropology. It is concerned with the social and cultural dimensions of the living peoples (Pritchard 1995); and with the description and analysis of people’s lives and traditions (Podolefsky and Brown, 1997). Socio-cultural anthropology studies the social, symbolic or non- material and material lives of contemporary and historically recent human societies, taking the concept of culture central to its goal (Howard and Dunaif-Hattis, 1992). Cultural anthropologists conduct studies of living peoples, most often by visiting and living among a 21 Introduction to Sociocultural Anthropology particular people for an extended period of time, usually a year or longer (Keesing 1981). They conduct fieldwork among the people they study and describe the results of their investigations in the form of books and articles called ethnographies. Cultural anthropology is also concerned with making generalizations about, and seeking explanations for, similarities and differences among the world's people. Those who conduct comparative studies to achieve these theoretical goals are called ethnologists. Thus, two important aspects of social/cultural anthropology are ethnography and ethnology. The former is more of empirical study or description of the culture and ways of lives of a particular group of people, while the latter is more of a theoretical study of the similarities and differences among the human groups of the world, past or present. There are many other specialized fields of study in social or cultural anthropology. Some of these include: anthropology of art, medical anthropology, urban/rural/economic anthropology, political anthropology, development anthropology, anthropology of religion, legal anthropology, demographic 22 Introduction to Sociocultural Anthropology anthropology, ecological anthropology, psychological anthropology, ethnomusicology, etc. 1.5.3. Archaeological Anthropology Archaeology studies the ways of lives of past peoples by excavating and analyzing the physical remains they left behind. Artifacts are the material remains of human societies (Scupin and DeCorse, 1995). Archeologists also study ecofacts, the footprints on the ecology by the past societies. This helps reveal the way human societies interacted with their local ecosystems. Tools, ornaments, pottery, animal bones, human skeletal material, and evidence of how people lived in the distant past are collected, and systematically analyzed. Archeological anthropology has three major goals: 1) classifying and sequencing material culture; 2) reconstructing ancient ways of life; and 3) explaining and delineating cultural processes (Howard and Dunaif- Hattis, 1992). 23 Introduction to Sociocultural Anthropology Some branches of study in archeology include: Prehistoric archeology: Prehistoric archeology investigates human prehistory; that is the periods of time in a region before the art of writing developed. Many anthropological archeologists study societies that did not leave behind any written records. Prehistoric archeology uses material remains to reconstruct prehistoric life ways; it also studies contemporary peoples whose styles of life are analogous and or comparable to those of ancient peoples. For example, by studying the ways of life of present hunter and gatherer societies, prehistoric archeologists can gain insights into the ways in which the ancient foraging peoples lived (Ibid. P. 11) Ethnoarcheology: This may be regarded as an aspect of prehistoric archeology. It is an approach to ethnographic analogy in which archeologists make their own observation of the contemporary cultures rather than relying on information provided by cultural anthropologists. Historical archaeology: uses the evidence provided by excavated remains to enhance our understanding of 24 Introduction to Sociocultural Anthropology historic peoples; that is, peoples who had writing and about whom written records are available. Historical archeologists study sites dating from historic times. Much of the work of historical archeologists has been to help preserve historical sites (Ibid. p12). Classical archeology: Is an aspect of historic archeology; it deals primarily with the ancient civilizations and empires of Europe and the Middle East, including Egypt, Greece, Roman and Persia, Axum, etc. There are several other specialized areas of study and research in archeology such as industrial archeology, underwater archeology, marine archeology, cognitive archeology, experimental archeology, biblical archeological, cultural resource management, and so on. 1.5.4. Linguistic Anthropology Linguistics is the scientific study of language. Linguists describe and analyze the sound patterns, combinations of sounds, meanings and structure of sentence in human languages (Kottak, 1994). They also attempt to determine how two or more languages are related. Historically, modern linguists are especially interested in 25 Introduction to Sociocultural Anthropology whether all human languages share any universal common feature. Some recent work suggests that human infants are born with knowledge of a set of generalized rules that allow them to discover the specific rules of language around them and to formulate new sentences by applying these rules. The terms linguistic anthropology anthropological linguistics, and ethnolinguistics are often used interchangeably in the linguistic anthropology literature. However, the more preferred term is linguistic anthropology. It is defined as “the study of speech and language within the context of anthropology…. It is the study of language as a cultural resource and speaking as a cultural practice.” (Durnati, 1997:1). Linguistic anthropology usually focuses on unwritten languages (i.e., those languages which have no form of writing, languages used by indigenous peoples of the non-western societies). It is especially concerned with relations between language and other aspects of human behavior and thought. Linguistic anthropologists might describe and analyze a language so far unknown to linguistic science. The branch of linguistic anthropology, 26 Introduction to Sociocultural Anthropology called sociolinguistics is interested in how the language is used in various social contexts. For example, what speech style must one use with people of higher social standing? How does a local political leader use language to earn people's allegiance? What can the naming of various parts of the natural and social environment tell as about people's perception of their environments? A second important branch called historical linguistics focuses on the comparison and classifications of different languages to discern the historical links between them. This historical linguistic research is particularly useful in tracing the migration routes of various societies through time (Scupin and De Corse, 1995). Another branch, called structural linguistics, studies the structure of linguistic patterns. Structural linguists compare grammatical patterns and other linguistic elements to find out how contemporary languages are similar to and different from one another. 27 Introduction to Sociocultural Anthropology 1.5.5. Applied Anthropology Applied anthropology, the application of anthropological knowledge, methods and approaches to the solving of human problems, is often now seen as a fifth major branch of anthropology, although it is not well-established as the traditionally known four fields. Applied anthropology involves the use of data gathered in other subfields of anthropology in an endeavor to tackle contemporary societal problems. Anthropologists have increasingly become concerned with practically dealing with human problems (Bodley, 1996; Podolefsky and Brown, 1993). The problems may include: environmental, technological, economic, social, political or cultural. Applied anthropologist now work in quite many areas of relevance such as education, mass medical, medicine, development, business, agriculture, crime and urban poverty, etc (Scupin and DeCorse, 1995; Kottak, 2002). 28 Introduction to Sociocultural Anthropology Box 1.5. Major branches and specializations in anthropology Five major branches of anthropology: physical anthropology, Sociocultural anthropology, archeological anthropology, linguistic anthropology and applied anthropology Specializations in physical anthropology: primatology, paleoanthropology, anthropometry, population genetics, forensic anthropology Specializations in sociocultural anthropology: medical anthropology, urban anthropology, anthropology of religion, ecological anthropology, demographic anthropology, development anthropology, economic anthropology, etc Specializations in archeological anthropology: historical archeology, prehistoric archeology, Ethnoarcheology, classic archeology, underwater archeology, biblical archeology, cultural resource management, etc Specializations in linguistic anthropology: sociolinguistics, historical linguistics, structural linguistics, etc 29 Introduction to Sociocultural Anthropology 1.6. Contributions of Anthropology The contributions of anthropology may be categorized in to the following (World Book Encyclopedia 1994, Vol. 1, Howard and Dunaif-Hattis 1992; Aoyagi, 1999): 1. Anthropology gives us an insight into different ways and modes of life of a given society, to understand the logic behind and justification for human activities and behavior. 2. Anthropology also helps us understand our own ways of lives. Many aspects of our lives seem to us normal, so we don't know the logic behind. Eating injera, for example, is assumed to be normal to those whose staple (main) food item is injera. By studying anthropology, we look into ourselves through the others' ways of lives. As we study anthropology, we encounter a different way of lives from ourselves, and hence we get opportunity to appreciate and understand ourselves. 3. Anthropology helps us fight against prejudices and discriminations. It helps us fight against ethnocentrism; the attitude that one's own culture and one's own way of life is the center of the world 30 Introduction to Sociocultural Anthropology and the best of all. This arises from ignorance about other ethnic groups and their ways of lives. 4. Anthropology is also used as a tool for development. Applied anthropology, here, is the application of anthropological knowledge and research results in the solution of some social problems or in the implementation of project plans. In addition to the aforementioned points, we may substantiate the contributions of anthropology as follows: 1. Because of its broad scope, anthropology allows us to understand the biological, technological and cultural development of humanity over long period of time in human evolution. 2. Because of its comparative approach to humanity, anthropology allows us to separate what is unique to our way of life from what is general to all people. 3. Because of its relativistic approach, anthropology helps us to be more sensitive and appreciative of cultural diversity and variability. It helps us to avoid some of the misunderstanding that commonly arises 31 Introduction to Sociocultural Anthropology when individuals of different cultural traditions come into contact. Anthropology reduces ethnocentrism by instilling an appreciation of cultural diversity. Anthropology can help us be aware that when we interact with people from other cultural traditions, their actions are not always intended to mean what we take them to mean, and therefore much miscommunication can be avoided. Health workers involved in health care provision in various cultural settings will find it very helpful if they develop this mentality. 4. Anthropologists bring a holistic approach to national and international development agencies. 5. Anthropologists use their expertise in particular subjects to formulate practical ways of coping with immediate social problems. Medical anthropologists, for example, investigate the interrelationship between human health, nutrition, and cultural beliefs and practices. 32 Introduction to Sociocultural Anthropology In general, anthropology more than any other sciences, can reveal the alternative ways of living developed by diverse segments of humanity. Before closing this section, it is important to note why health/ medical sciences students need to take a course in sociocultural anthropology. The following are some of the arguments for the necessity of such a course: 1. Health, disease and illness are as much sociocultural in their nature as they are physical. 2. So far, despite certain steps being taken, the dominant trend in the medical/ health sciences training is to highly focus on the biomedical and ecological dimensions of health and disease. However, given the bio-psycho-social nature of human being and health, this is very partial. This restricted approach to health disease does not provide the students with appropriate and whole picture about the issue. Such highly narrow focus in the training of heath professionals and design of health policies and strategies is not appropriate. 33 Introduction to Sociocultural Anthropology 3. In the objective realties of developing societies such as Ethiopia human health and wellbeing are deeply linked to sociocultural factors such as the entrenched poverty, the roles of traditional values and institutions in shaping people’s worldviews about health and disease. 1.7. The Relationship between Anthropology and Other Disciplines 1.7.1. Similarity between Anthropology and Other Disciplines Anthropology is similar with other social sciences as to its subject matter. All the social sciences such as sociology, psychology, political sciences, economics, history, etc, study, in one way or another, the human society and its ways of lives. Anthropology greatly overlaps with other disciplines that study human society. For example, anthropological field workers are likely to collect information on a society's agriculture, leadership patterns, and beliefs about the universe (physical world), music and art forms. They might find it useful to be acquainted with the works of economists, geographers, 34 Introduction to Sociocultural Anthropology political scientists, philosophers, mythologists, and artists or art historians. They may read the works of historians, sociologists, novelists, economists, psychologists, and political scientists who also write about the region. Anthropology thus cuts across many disciplines, encompassing many of the subjects that other scholars consider their special province: law, religion, politics, literature, art, and so on (World Book Encyclopedia 1994, Vol. 1). 1.7.2. Differences between Anthropology and Other Disciplines Anthropology differs from other social sciences and the humanities by its broad scope, approach, unit of analysis and methods used. It studies mankind in its entirety. In its approach, anthropology studies and analyzes human ways of life holistically, comparatively and relativistically. Its unit of analysis is small-scale society. That is, it is interested in a group of people with more or less simple, homogenous ways of life. In its method of research, it is unique in that extended fieldwork among the studied community and developing intimate knowledge of the life worlds of the community with participant observation. 35 Introduction to Sociocultural Anthropology 1.8. Chapter Summary Anthropology is broad scientific discipline, which was born lately in the 19th century, with the major aim of scientific study and documentation of the physical, socio-cultural and other diversities among people, past and present. It specially studies simple, small-scale societies in the non-western world. Its holistic, comparative and relativistic approaches, its unit of analysis and method of study along with its broad scope make it unique. However, it shares many things with the other sciences. The science of anthropology has many theoretical and practical importance and contributions. The four main branches of anthropology are physical anthropology, sociocultural anthropology, linguistic anthropology and archeological anthropology. Applied anthropology is sometimes regarded as a fifth sub-filed. Each of the major branches of anthropology has several specialized areas of study within it. Anthropology as a science has as its major goal the making, accumulation and dissemination of scientific knowledge on society and culture. 36 Introduction to Sociocultural Anthropology Review Questions 1. What is anthropology? 2. Discuss the historical backgrounds of sociocultural anthropology. 3. What is the difference between ethnography and ethnology? 4. What is forensic anthropology? Discuss its applicability in Ethiopia. 5. Why do anthropologists study primate behavior? 6. What common characteristics does anthropology share with the other sciences? 7. Why do anthropologists use emic approach in their research? 8. What distinguishes anthropology from other human sciences? 9. What are the personal and professional uses of anthropology to you? 10. Define paleoanthropology. What are its limitations? 11. Distinguish between historical archeology, prehistoric archeology and ethnoarcehology. 37