CHAPTER 1 LESSON 1A PDF

 Intended Learning Outcomes 1. explain the interactions between S&T and society throughout history; 2. construct a historical timeline of the paradigm shifts in history; 3. synthesize the effect of scientific and technological developments on society and the environment; and, 4. articu...

 Intended Learning Outcomes 1. explain the interactions between S&T and society throughout history; 2. construct a historical timeline of the paradigm shifts in history; 3. synthesize the effect of scientific and technological developments on society and the environment; and, 4. articulate ways by which society is transformed by science and technology. COLLEGE OF ARTS & SCIENCES TEACHER EDUCATION Department Secondary of Languages Education Department& Literature I. ANCIENT TIMES COLLEGE OF ARTS & SCIENCES TEACHER EDUCATION Department Secondary of Languages Education Department& Literature Problems encountered during ancient times During the ancient times, several problems were encountered by the people as their population was increasing. These problems arose due to individual needs and the concerns of the people as a whole. As the ancient people tried to innovate in order to address these issues, the advancement of science and technology has begun. TRANSPORTATION COMMUNICATION SECURITY AND PROTECTION HEALTH ARCHITECTURE AND ENGINEERING MASS PRODUCTION AESTHETICS RECORD KEEPING  TRANSPORTATION TRANSPORTATION is significant during those times because people were trying to discover new horizons. As the people tried to widen their community, there was a need to transport materials. The people also needed to travel to search for food and to find better locations to settle. This problem enabled the invention of carriages and sailboats as the earliest modes of transportation. NAVIGATION assisted them in their journeys to unfamiliar and strange places. It allowed them to return home after they discovered new places or completed important trades with other groups of people. The problem on navigation gave birth to the field of astronomy, as the people started studying the patterns of the sky.  COMMUNICATION COMMUNICATION was essential in the ancient peoples’ endeavors to discover and occupy new places. They needed a way to communicate with the natives of the areas they visited so as to facilitate trade and prevent possible conflicts. There were no common language before. Only signals were used for communication. Pigeons were used to deliver messages. Smoke signals and the use of horns to alarm the people were utilized. Eventually, the use of pictures and letters etched on clay tablets and written on papyrus were invented. RECORD-KEEPING Record-keeping was important since they needed to remember places they had been to and document the trades they made with each other. It was also vital to keep records of their history and culture so they could establish their identities as they tried to relate with other cultures and civilizations. This resulted to the inventions of mathematics and the different systems of writing.  MASS PRODUCTION The increase in size and number of nations meant increased demand for food and other basic necessities. This condition implied that people must be able to produce food at a given time and space. People need a form of technology that would enable them to increase food supplies and other survival needs without them traveling more or working harder. This problem paved the way for agriculture to be developed.  SAFETY AND PROTECTION Weapons and armors were important in the discovery of new places or the establishment of new alliances with other tribes. At the time, there was always a risk of conflict when people met others with different culture. Stronger nations tended to invade weaker ones so they could take much needed resources. As such, the development of weapons for security and protection was considered a major achievement. From the use of crude stone tools, the discovery of metals introduced more sophisticated weapons.  HEALTH CONCERNS Conservation of life is a major concern since there were no microscopes yet to discover bacteria and viruses and there were no drugs created. Different illnesses and diseases, both natural and man- made, hampered the full potential of a human being. This problem paved the way for the discovery of natural remedies to illnesses, such as herbal medicines and the use of acupuncture. However, this problem also contributed to the belief of ancient people to the supernatural as causes of such illnesses. ARCHITECTURE AND ENGINEERING ARCHITECTURE. During the ancient times, elaborate architectural designs were signs of technological advancement of a particular civilization. The people built massive temples to honor their gods. ENGINEERING. In order to have better transportation, more resilient structures for protection from human attacks and natural disasters, and bigger and stronger infrastructures, people developed the field of engineering. This development allowed humans to build structures that would address their specific needs and wants.  AESTHETICS AESTHETICS. The people were not only contented on beautifying their infrastructures and surroundings, being able to prolong life, developing technology, raising the quality of life. Humans later on aimed to appear more presentable and appealing by adding some features and decorations in their body. Let’s Reflect 3! Discuss one problem that you encountered that led you or prompted you to create a solution on your own. How did you come up with such solution? Major Technological Advancements of Ancient Civilizations Sumerians Babylonians Egyptians Greeks Romans  SUMERIAN CIVILIZATION Sumer was the first urban civilization in ancient Mesopotamia. The Sumerians flourished thousands of years ago between the Tigris and Euphrates rivers in what today is southern Iraq, from the 27th-20th century BCE. Sumerians invented new technologies and perfected the large-scale use of existing ones. In the process, they transformed how humans cultivated food, built dwellings, communicated and kept track of information and time. The Sumerian civilization flourished for thousands of years before it lost its identity after being conquered by the Amorites.  Cuneiform The Sumerians were the first to develop a writing system, which they used to keep track of the goods that they were making and selling. Word pictures (pictographs) and triangular symbols were used This style of writing was wedge-shaped. A stylus was used to produce different figures and pictorials by making cuts into https://www.ancienthistorylists.com/wp-content/uploads/2015/12/cuniform-ancient- mesopotamia-writing.jpg soft clay. Uruk City Considered as the first true city in the world, Uruk lies about 241 km to the south of Baghdad, the present capital of Iraq. In ancient times, Uruk was situated on the eastern banks of a channel of the Euphrates River. It was built using mud or clay on the river mixed with sun baked bricks. The bricks were used to make houses that protected them from harsh weather. This prevented wild animals and neighboring raiders from entering.  https://www.ancient-origins.net/sites/default/files/field/image/mesopotamia-painting.jpg https://emberfox.medium.com/lessons-from-uruk-what-the-first-city-teaches-us-about-building-communities-today-52f0dd110e13  A general view of the Uruk archaeological site at Warka in Iraq. https://www.ancient-origins.net/sites/default/files/styles/large/public/Uruk-archaeological-site.jpg?itok=5VHyTjen https://madainproject.com/content/media/collect/ziggurat_uruk_2837.jpg  Sexagesimal System The Sumerians used a base- 60 system. It is still used today in the measurement of both the hour and the minute and the angles. An elementary abacus was also invented by the Sumerians between 2700 and 2300 BC. https://www.ancienthistorylists.com/wp-content/uploads/2018/01/number-system- sumerian-inventions.jpg  The Great Ziggurat of Ur Ziggurats are huge stepped structures with a temple on top. The Ziggurat of Ur was also called “The Mountain of God”, since it was believed to be the dwelling places for the gods. Only priests were permitted inside the ziggurat and it was their responsibility to care for the gods and attend to their needs. As a result, the priests were very powerful members of Sumerian society. Irrigation and Dikes Dikes and irrigation canals were created to bring water to farmlands and to control the flooding of the rivers The Sumerians figured out how to collect and channel the overflow of the Tigris and Euphrates rivers—and the rich silt that it contained—and then use it to water and fertilize their farm fields. They designed complex systems of canals, with dams constructed of reeds, palm trunks and mud whose gates could be opened or closed to regulate the flow of water. Dikes and canals enabled the Sumerians to enjoy year-long farming and harvesting, which increased food production. They grew barley and dates. They also raised goats and sheeps. https://media.springernature.com/lw685/springer-static/image/chp%3A10.1007%2F978-3-319-05699-9_1/MediaObjects/315715_1_En_1_Fig3_HTML.jpg  The Plow The Sumerians invented the plow, a vital technology in farming. They even produced a manual that gave farmers detailed instructions on how to use https://www.history.com/.image/c_limit%2Ccs_srgb%2Cq_auto:good%2Cw_700/M various types of plows. TY1ODkzNDI1MDcyMjUyMjk4/sumerian-gettyimages-55857024.webp  The lion-headed eagle made of copper, gold, and lapis lazuli by Sumerian civilization. Metallurgy The Sumerians were the earliest people to use copper to make useful items, ranging from spearheads to arrowheads. Sumerian metallurgists used furnaces heated by reeds and controlled the temperature with a bellows that could be worked with their hands or feet. https://www.history.com/.image/c_limit%2Ccs_srgb%2Cq_auto:good%2Cw_700/MTY1 ODkzODEyMTU2MTE0MzE0/sumerian-gettyimages-142931274.webp  Sailboats Since wheel was not yet invented, the main mode of transportation was through waterways. Sailboats were essential in transportation and trading. Wood and papyrus were used to make lightweight sailboats so that it was easy for them to move on water. https://www.timetoast.com/timelines/mesopotamian-inventions The sails were given a square shape and were made of linen.  Wheel The first wheels were not made for transportation but for farm work, pottery, and food processes. With the use of wheel and axle, mass production was made easier. Farmers were able to mill grains with less effort in less time. The Sumerians didn’t invent wheeled vehicles, but did likely develop the first two-wheeled chariot by drilling a hole through the frame of the cart to https://www.ancienthistorylists.com/wp-content/uploads/2018/01/sumerian- inventions-wheel.jpg create an axle.  Astronomy The Sumerians were the first astronomers to map the stars into separate constellations. They were also responsible for identifying the five planets visible to the naked eye. They documented the movements of stars and planets to predict future battles and the fortunes of city-states, and also charted their month from the first crescent of the new moon. Phases of the moon were used to create a lunar calendar. Their year consisted of two seasons, the first was the summer which started with the vernal equinox, and the other was winter which began with the autumnal equinox. This cuneiform stone is a star map of Nineveh. It recorded an asteroid impact, with a diameter of more than a kilometer, on 3123 BC. https://curiosmos.com/wp-content/uploads/2019/03/Sumerian-Star-Map-scaled.jpg  The Sumerians seemed to be aware that the solar system was Heliocentric. On some tablets, 11 celestial bodies or planets can be found. https://miro.medium.com/v2/resize:fit:750/format:webp/0*EmhCgDiEBItArs9T.jpg Let’s Reflect 4! Mesopotamia is called the Fertile Crescent because it is established along the rivers of Tigris and Euphrates. In your town, at what particular area did the early settlers build their communities? Why did they choose that area? Discuss at least two reasons. Ask your grandparents or the elders in your barangay for more context. BABYLONIAN CIVILIZATION Babylon is from the Akkadian word “babilani” which means “the gate of gods”. Ancient Babylon was an influential city that served as a center of Mesopotamian civilization from roughly 2000 B.C. to 540 B.C. It was located near the Euphrates River, about 60 miles (100 kilometers) south of Baghdad. The Babylonian civilization was later conquered by the Persian empire around 539 BC. Depiction of Ancient Babylonia https://learnodo-newtonic.com/wp-content/uploads/2018/08/Depiction-of-ancient-Babylon.webp Hanging Gardens The Hanging Gardens were an ascending series of tiered gardens containing a wide variety of trees, shrubs, and vines constructed during the reign of King Nebuchadnezzar II (605 – 562 BC). They are described as a marvelous feat of engineering. Since Babylon received little rain, engineers devised hydraulic pumps that brought water from the nearby Euphrates River to irrigate the gardens. The gardens were a lush mountain of foliage in the middle of a flat, dry desert. https://cdn.mos.cms.futurecdn.net/BsPzTxTXoDVM428P8HxXXY-1200-80.jpg Its exact location is unknown. There are no known Babylonian records of the site.  Mathematics The Babylonians developed the first ever positional number system, in which the value of the digit depends on the digit and its position. However, the Babylonians had no concept of zero or a digit for it. They instead used a space. Babylonians constructed tables to aid calculation. Babylonian mathematicians also developed algebraic methods of solving equations. The first ever evidence of the solution of quadratic equations is from Babylonia. Also, Babylonian tablets used for calculating cubes and cube roots have been found. 1 × 603 + 57 × 602 + 46 × 60 + 40 = 424 000 https://mathshistory.st-andrews.ac.uk/Diagrams/424000.gif  Code of Hammurabi The code is well known for its "eye for an eye" style of lawmaking. It was harsh and made liberal use of death sentences and allowed for the hacking off of body parts. The Code of Hammurabi contains as many as 300 laws that discuss a wide range of subjects, including homicide, assault, divorce, debt, adoption, tradesman’s fees, agricultural practices and even disputes regarding the brewing of beer. It was among the first codes to establish the presumption of innocence, the principle that one is considered innocent unless proven guilty.  The Ishtar Gate Built by Nebuchadnezzar II around 575 BC and named after Ishtar, the goddess of love and war, the Ishtar Gate is the lower part of the monumental eighth gate to the inner city of Babylon. It served as the ceremonial entrance to the inner wall of Babylon. Glazed bricks were used to decorate the gate. https://cdn.mos.cms.futurecdn.net/Lia7fPxRqxaLNfCnmDdo23-1200-80.jpg https://madainproject.com/ishtar_gate_%28babylon%29#gallery-12  The Ziggurat of Etemenanki The ziggurat of Etemenanki ("Temple of the Foundation of Heaven and Earth") towered over the city of Babylon. It had 7 terraces and a height of 91 meters. The ziggurat was dedicated to the god, Marduk. It is said to have inspired the story of the Tower of Babel. https://www.worldhistory.org/uploads/images/11755.jpg  Astronomy and Astrology The Babylonians were the first to recognize that astronomical phenomena are periodic and apply mathematics to their predictions. Babylonia is the first known civilization to possess a functional theory on the motion of the planets. Astrology was one of the primary means of Babylonian priests to ascertain the will of the Gods. Babylonia thus laid the foundations of what would eventually become Western astrology. The Zodiac and its twelve signs can also be traced to Babylonian astrology.  Zodiacal Sign Normal Babylonian Name Aries The Hired Man Taurus The Stars (Pleiades) Gemini The Twin Cancer The Crab Leo The Lion Virgo The Barleystalk Libra The Balance Scorpio The Scorpion Sagittarius Pabilsag Capricorn The Goat-fish Aquarius The Great One Pisces The Tails http://www.ancient-wisdom.com/Images/countries/Sumerian%20pics/artrology.jpg Let’s Reflect 5! The Hanging Gardens of Babylon is considered as one of the seven wonders of the ancient world. It is considered as an architectural and engineering marvel. Describe an infrastructure in the Philippines that is also considered an architectural and engineering marvel. Discuss why. EGYPTIAN CIVILIZATION https://i0.wp.com/egypt-museum.com/wp-content/uploads/2022/08/Map-of-Ancient-Egyptian- Sites-and-Settlements.jpg?ssl=1 Egyptians’ Contributions PAPYRUS WIG WATER CLOCK/CLEPSYDRA HIEROGLYPHICS INK COSMETICS PYRAMIDS MUMMIFICATION  Papyrus Egypt was not the first to develop a system of writing but they were able to make writing easier. Papyrus was a plant that grew abundantly in Egypt. Papers made from this plant was a major accomplishment in Egyptian record-keeping and communication. It was easier to keep them away from raiders who often destroyed records of the nations they invaded. https://www.desertsun.com/gcdn/-mm-/866bd71a19a5f97a68006c41aa8d3cc749fa1f1c/c=0-192-1927-2761/local/- /media/2018/05/15/PalmSprings/PalmSprings/636619978635754598-mirror-1.jpg Pen and Ink When the Egyptians invented the papyrus, engraving was the method of writing. To make writing easier, the Egyptians invented ink by combining soot with different chemicals to produce inks of different colors. They used pens made of reeds. https://media.britishmuseum.org/media/Repository/Documents/2014_10/5_19/be8202b0_1aa9_41db_8774_a3bb0140e889/mid_00368085_001.jpg  Hieroglyphs The word hieroglyph comes from the Greek hiero 'holy' and glypho 'writing’. Egyptians believed that this writing system was provided to them by the gods. The Egyptians discovered a system of writing using symbols https://discoveringegypt.com/wp-content/uploads/2014/06/hiero1.jpg https://collectionapi.metmuseum.org/api/collection/v1/iiif/251788/534366/main-image https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9f/Ancient_Egypt_Papyrus_Scroll_of_the_Dead_%2828131210084%29. jpg/640px-Ancient_Egypt_Papyrus_Scroll_of_the_Dead_%2828131210084%29.jpg  Cosmetics The ancient Egyptians were very aware of their self-image. Personal hygiene and appearance was an important value. They believed that beauty was a sign of holiness and purity. They used many natural ingredients like henna, kohl, and clay to create their cosmetics. The Egyptians invented the cosmetics not only for aesthetics but also for their health. Egyptians lined their eyes with black kohl to protect their eyes from the bright sunlight. The eye makeup was also https://images.saymedia- believed to protect against conjunctivitis content.com/.image/c_limit%2Ccs_srgb%2Cq_auto:eco%2Cw_700/MTk4MTQzNTQwMTk3MzM2MTM2/ancient- egyptian-cosmetics.webp and other eye infections. https://scoopempire.com/ancient-egyptians-owe  Wig Predominantly worn by the elite of Egyptian society, wigs served a dual purpose: they signaled high rank in Egypt's strict social hierarchy and helped protect shaven scalps (a sign of nobility) from the sun. Wigs also helped maintain hygiene levels by reducing the incidence of head lice. https://www.reddit.com/media?url=https%3A%2F%2Fpreview.redd.it%2Fbl0a2yozkbj71.jpg%3Fwidth%3D622%26format%3Dpjpg %26auto%3Dwebp%26s%3D6bd3c3e5b9cd4e9304864f2c38b67d1766b847ba  Clocks The Egyptians used obelisks as sun clocks by noting how its shadow moved around its surface throughout the day. From the use of obelisks, they identified the longest and shortest days of the year. They also invented the water clock or clepsydra, a device that utilizes gravity. It is a stone vessel with a tiny hole at the bottom which allowed water to drip at a constant rate. The passage of hours could be measured from marks spaced at https://media.sciencephoto.com/e9/05/01/62/e9050162-800px-wm.jpg different levels. The amount of water remaining in the device determines how much time has elapsed since it was full. https://scoopempire.com/ancient-egyptians-owe/  Mummification The process of mummification is the embalming and wrapping by which a body was preserved and prepared for burial. The ancient Egyptians mummified their dead because they believed that the physical body would be important in the next life. https://www.wondriumdaily.com/wp-content/uploads/2021/01/mummification-process-in-ancient-egypt.jpg Construction and Engineering Water power was theorized to have been used to construct the large structures of the Egyptians. Water could have been harnessed and pressure exerted via a pump helped raise the stones up a ramp to their intended positions. https://www.worldhistory.org/image/5687/the-pyramids-giza-egypt/ Mathematics and Astronomy Astronomy was important to the ancient Egyptians on two levels: the spiritual and the practical. For example, the stars told the stories of the gods' accomplishments and trials but also indicated the passage of time and the seasons. The stars could tell one when it was going to rain, when it was nearing time to plant or harvest crops. Mathematics was used in record keeping, in developing the schematics for machines such as the water pump, in calculating tax rates, and in drawing up designs and citing locations for building projects.  Calendar Egyptian calendar is the first calendar known to use a year of 365 days, approximately equal to the solar year. This civil calendar was split into twelve months of 30 days with an additional five epagomenal days attached at the end of the year. These additional five days were considered to be unlucky. They also maintained a second calendar based upon the phases of the moon, the lunar calendar, which consisted of 29 or 30 days. Epagomenal days https://www.researchgate.net/publication/335949354/figure/fig20/AS:960119554715670@1605921748434/The-relation-of-the- Egyptian-calendar-to-the-zodiac-for-61-BCE.png Medicine Medicine in ancient Egypt was intimately tied to magic. Spells were used in treating diseases while at the same time exhibiting a significant degree of medical knowledge. There are three known medical scrolls written by the Egyptians: The Ebers Papyrus is a text of 110 pages treating ailments such as trauma, cancer, heart disease, depression, dermatology, gastrointestinal distress, and many others. The Edwin Smith Papyrus is the oldest known work on surgical techniques. This work shows detailed knowledge of anatomy and physiology. The London Medical Papyrus combines practical medical skill with magical spells for the treatment of conditions ranging from eye problems to miscarriages. The London Medical Papyrus https://www.worldhistory.org/img/r/p/500x600/5986.jpg.webp?v=1656499562 Agriculture Ox – drawn plough. Using the power of oxen to pull the plough revolutionized agriculture and modified versions of this Egyptian invention are still used by farmers in developing countries around the world. Sickle. The sickle is a curved blade used for cutting and harvesting grain, such as wheat and barley. Irrigation. The Egyptians constructed canals and irrigation ditches to harness Nile river’s yearly flood and bring water to distant fields.  Let’s Reflect 6! Write your first and last name using the ancient Egyptian alphabet. https://www.historyforkids.net/wp-content/uploads/2019/12/Ancient-Egyptian- Alphabet.jpg?ezimgfmt=ng%3Awebp%2Fngcb1%2Frs%3Adevice%2Frscb1-2  GREEK CIVILIZATION https://images.saymedia-content.com/.image/c_limit%2Ccs_srgb%2Cq_auto:eco%2Cw_700/MTc0NjM5ODgyNTAwMTIyNjE0/greek- influences-today.webp https://www.greeka.com/photos/maps/ancient-greece-map.jpg  Ancient Greece can be credited with many inventions and discoveries. The ancient Greeks’ findings in the areas of astronomy, geography, and mathematics made them pioneers in the fields of science. The Greeks’ interest in the scientific specification of the physical world can be seen as far back as the sixth century BC, and they have often been hailed as the fathers of science, medicine, zoology, and many other areas.  The Water Mill Water mills were a revolutionary invention and have been used all over the world for the purpose of metal shaping, agriculture and, most importantly, milling. To mill means to grind, and that invariably means to grind grain. This in turn led to the production of edible food staples like rice, cereals, pulses, flour, and so on. It was most likely invented by the Greek https://www.ancienthistorylists.com/wp-content/uploads/2014/10/ancient-greece-water-mill.jpg engineer Philo of Byzantium. Alarm Clock Ctesibius (285–222 BC) fitted his clepsydras or water clock with a dial and pointer to indicate the time, and added an elaborate alarm system which involved pebbles dropping on to a gong, or the blowing of a trumpet by forcing bell jars down into water and taking the compressed air through a beating reed at pre-set times. https://www.inventions-handbook.com/images/alarmclockancientgreek.jpg Cartography Cartography is the study and practice of making maps. Anaximander was one of the first pioneer cartographers to create a map of the world. https://www.ancienthistorylists.com/wp-content/uploads/2014/10/Cartography-greece.png Medicine Hippocrates of Cos started to collect data and conduct experiments to show that disease was a natural process; that the signs and symptoms of a disease were caused by the natural reactions of the body to the disease process. He was referred to as the father of Western medicine in recognition of his lasting contributions to the field and was the founder of the Hippocratic School of Medicine. The most famous of his contributions is the Hippocratic Oath, which bears his name. It was this document that first proposed an ethical standard among doctors. It covers many important concepts which are still used today, such as doctor–patient confidentiality. https://i.etsystatic.com/9418101/r/il/6df2e6/2644915730/il_794xN.2644915730_s0md.jpg GALEN Galen was a physician, writer, and philosopher who became the most famous doctor in the Roman Empire and whose theories dominated European medicine for 1,500 years. He pioneered the concepts of anatomy, physiology and therapeutics. He is credited as being the first to discover that arteries carry blood, not air, as was previously believed. He developed medical tools for surgery and dissection and wrote many volumes of his discoveries and observations. Concepts in Modern Science Aristotle introduced the idea of the earth as a globe. He also classified animals and is often referred to as the father of zoology. Archimedes discovered that submerging a solid object in water would displace the same amount of liquid as the object’s volume. The Pythagoreans not only made the earliest advances in philosophy and geometry, but they also proposed the heliocentric hypothesis of the earth revolving around the sun. Eratosthenes accurately measured the size/circumference of the earth just by using 2 sticks  Modern Philosophy Before the age of ancient Greece, philosophy was shrouded in superstition and magic. For instance, the Egyptians believed that if the Nile rose and flooded, making the soil dark and fertile, their pharaoh had commanded it. The Greeks developed philosophy as a way of understanding the world around them, without resorting to religion, myth, or magic. Early Greek philosophers were also scientists who observed and studied the known world, the earth, seas, mountains, solar system, planetary motion, and astral phenomena. Thales of Miletus (624 – 546 BC) In the 7th century, he was dubbed as “The Father of Science” He was the first to posit non-supernatural explanations for earthquakes, lightnings, and other phenomenon He predicted solar eclipses, droughts, and made fortune doing so.  ANAXIMANDER (610-546 BC) He believed that life came from water and mud. He proposed that humans evolved from lower life forms, a concept later vindicated by Charles Darwin, 2400 years later.  EMPEDOCLES (490-430 BC) He proposed that matter is composed of four elements: earth, water, fire, and air. He also concluded that the moon does not have its own light. PYTHAGORAS (570-495 BC) He started a school dedicated to Mathematics and its application to nature. He was credited to be the first to propose that the earth is a sphere. DEMOCRITUS (460 – 370 BC) He was the first to theorize that matter is made up of atoms. HERACLITUS & PARMENIDES They have opposing views on nature: HERACLITUS: “It is not possible to step into the same river twice.” PARMENIDES: “Whatever is is, and what is not cannot be.” Started major debate on what justifies reason: knowledge or experience. Let’s Reflect 7! Reflect on the question, “What justifies reason: knowledge or experience?”. Is it more important to have knowledge than experience? Is an educated person more intelligent than someone who did not finish his studies but has more experience? Give sample scenarios to justify your point of view.  ROMAN CIVILIZATION The Romans were prodigious builders and expert civil engineers, and their thriving civilization produced advances in technology, culture and architecture that remained unequaled for centuries. https://images.interestingengineering.com/1200x675/filters:format(webp)/img/iea/3gG9mdaqGV/roman-inventions-11.jpg https://i.pinimg.com/originals/d8/c8/13/d8c813eeff835482e2595f3eb3ed881a.gif Julian Calendar Julius Caesar proposed the use of the Julian Calendar from 46 BC onwards. This calendar added one extra day in every four years ('leap year') because it had been calculated that the earth takes 365¼ days to complete its circuit around the sun, not a straight 365 days. However, the sun's circuit is 11 minutes less than 365¼ days. As a result, it emerged that the Julian Calendar was over-correcting by around 8 days each millennium. In the 16th century, a solution was proposed whereby centennial years would not be leap years unless they were divisible by 400. Using this calculation meant that there would only be an over-correction of 23 seconds, and that it would take 3,700 years before the over-correction amounted to a full day. In 1582, Pope Gregory ruled that a new calendar - the Gregorian Calendar - should be used. By that time, the Julian Calendar had added ten days too many to the calendar, so Pope Gregory decreed that the day after the 4th of October 1582 should be the 15th of October 1582, thus correcting the error. https://byustudies.byu.edu/further-study-chart/1-6-roman-calendar/  Aqueduct Aqueducts were pipelines that brought fresh water from the mountains to areas without water. These aqueducts provided fresh water to urban areas in the Roman Empire. The Romans had public toilets, underground sewage systems, fountains, and public baths. These aquatic innovations were made possible by the Roman aqueduct. First developed around 312 B.C., the aqueducts used gravity to transport https://s3.amazonaws.com/s3.timetoast.com/public/uploads/photo/11399132/image/c7f83968a6b3b473e126bc01a56fba88?X-Amz- Algorithm=AWS4-HMAC-SHA256&X-Amz-Credential=AKIAJB6ZCNNAN7BE7WDQ%2F20230913%2Fus-east- 1%2Fs3%2Faws4_request&X-Amz-Date=20230913T144903Z&X-Amz-Expires=604800&X-Amz-SignedHeaders=host&X-Amz- water along stone, lead and concrete pipelines Signature=73d49fa670604360a05ec6d208ccce81d524e8a923f3aab20016d0d944339444 and into city centers. This promoted public health and sanitation. The Romans did not invent the aqueduct but they used their mastery of civil engineering to perfect the process.  Medical Tools Romans developed precision medical instruments that influenced many modern- day surgical tools. Romans also used tools such as forceps, syringes, scalpels, and bone saws made by specialist manufacturers that resemble their 21st-century https://makerfairerome.eu/en/12-inventions-to-thank-ancient-romans-for/ equivalents.  Concrete The Romans first began building with concrete over 2,100 years ago and used it throughout the Mediterranean basin in everything from aqueducts and buildings to bridges and monuments. Roman concrete was considerably weaker than its modern counterpart, but it has proved remarkably durable thanks to its unique recipe, which used slaked lime and volcanic ash known as pozzolana to create a sticky paste. Combined with volcanic rocks called tuff, this ancient cement formed concrete that could effectively endure chemical decay.  Roads and Highways The Romans built the most sophisticated system of roads the ancient world had ever seen. These Roman roads—many of which are still in use today—were constructed with a combination of dirt, gravel and bricks made from granite or hardened volcanic lava. Roman engineers adhered to strict standards when designing their highways, creating arrow-straight roads that curved to allow for https://www.ancient-origins.net/sites/default/files/field/image/roads.jpg water drainage. https://www.geotech.hr/wp-content/uploads/2020/03/cesta.jpg Let’s Reflect 8! What can you say about the line, “All roads lead to Rome.”? What do you think does it imply? Explain by relating it to your daily life. Get in Touch With Us Send us a message or visit us City of Batac, Ilocos Norte, Philippines (63) 77-600-0459 [email protected] Follow us for updates facebook.com/MMSUofficial www.mmsu.edu.ph