Chapter 1: A Sociological Compass PDF

Chapter 1. A Sociological Compass sociology the systematic study of human behaviour in social context. C. Wright Mills - Sociological maps - allow us to “grasp the interplay of [people] and society, of biography and history” - Our sociological compass Suicide...

Chapter 1. A Sociological Compass sociology the systematic study of human behaviour in social context. C. Wright Mills - Sociological maps - allow us to “grasp the interplay of [people] and society, of biography and history” - Our sociological compass Suicide - social relations powerfully influence suicide rates. The Sociological Perspective - We do not usually think about the patterns of social relations that might encourage or inhibit such actions The Sociological Explanation of Suicide - Emilie Durkheim - Social forces influence suicide - Realized psychological disorder doesn’t have much to do with suicide (inverse, actually) - Why do they vary - differences in the degree of social solidarity in various categories of the population. - social solidarity - - the degree to which group members share beliefs and values and the intensity and frequency of their interaction. - The greater the group’s social solidarity, the more connected members are to society, and the less likely they are to take their own life - high-solidarity groups (altruistic) have lower suicide rates (egoistic/anomic) than low-solidarity groups. - EXAMPLEs - Jews, married people, women are less likely because they are in high solidarity groups - Social bonds, anchored to society are less likely to die Suicide In Canada Today - shared moral principles and strong social ties have eroded for Canadian youth leading to increased levels of suicide - Less church goers - Lgbtq+ are bullied - Indigenous communities ruined by canadian government (residential schools too) - Inuu people for example From Personal Troubles to Social Structures - patterns of social relations influence your thoughts and feelings, affect your behaviour, and therefore help shape who you are - Social Structures - stable patterns of social relations - 3 levels: micro, macro and global structures - Micro - patterns of close social relations formed during face-to-face interaction - Families, groups of friends - Macro - patterns of social relations that lie outside and above your circle of intimates and acquaintances. - Examples - Class relations - Patriarchy - Inequality men and women - Patriarchy for example leads to uneven house tasks leading to divorce - Global - Examples - International organizations - patterns of worldwide travel and communication - economic relations between countries - allow all parts of the world to become culturally, economically, and politically interconnected. - For example - These structures—like debt repayment systems, global financial institutions, and international trade rules—shape how wealth and resources are distributed across the world Sociological Imagination - sociological imagination - the quality of mind that enables a person to see the connection between personal troubles and social structures. - C wright mills - In all societies, people in financial distress are more likely to live in more dangerous, unhealthy ways - Squid Game - It goes beyond seeing the story as just individual misfortune and highlights how societal structures, like economic systems and working conditions, contribute to people's distress.\ - Used to believe society was controlled by god/nature (Greeks, etc, the european view of the world) Origins of the Sociological Imagination - Three revolutions: scientific, democratic, industrial - Scientific - we should use evidence, not speculation, to draw conclusions about how society works - Newtons law of motion and copernicus’s view that the earth revolves around the sun - Using evidence to test theory - Bgan in europe - * possible to have a science of society - Democratic - people are responsible for organizing society and that, as a result, social problems can be resolved through human intervention - The american and french revolution challenged the idea that god shaped social order - People control society - if people could change society, then they could also use a science of society to help them improve it. - human intervention can therefore solve social problems - *people could improve society - Industrial - Countryside to city - Many lost faith in their religions, battled faceless bureaucracies, and reacted to the filth and poverty of their lives with strikes, crime, revolutions, and wars  - *important social problems that demanded solutions Theories, Research, Values - August compte - Sociology - the study of society on scientific foundations - Urged for slow change - Preservation of all that was traditional in social life - Herbert spencer - Second founder of sociology - Inspired by darwin - thought that societies evolve in the same way biological species do. - Individuals struggle to survive - the unfit die before they can bear offspring - and the fittest survive. - Social darwinism - Society operates according to scientifc laws - Importance of science and vision of ideal society - Karl marx - Emile durkheim - Max weber - All 3 witnessed the transformation to industrial revolution - Suggest ways of improving people’s and society’s life Values - ideas about what is good and bad, right and wrong. - Sociologists’ values shape these issues of what is worth studying - Basically sociologist's bias - Theories - Sociological ideas are usually expressed in the form of theories - tentative explanations of some aspect of social life that state how and why certain facts are related - even a hunch qualifies as a theory if it suggests how and why certain facts are related - Broaden knowledge and help solve social problems - Tentative explanations cause we don’t know validity until research Research - the process of systematically observing social reality to test or assess the validity of a theory - Collecting stats for example Sociological Theory and Theorists Functionalism (a little confused on page 16 chapter 1) - theory that stresses that human behaviour is governed by relatively stable social structures, - underlines how social structures maintain or undermine social stability, - emphasizes that social structures are based mainly on shared values or preferences - suggests that re-establishing equilibrium can best solve most social problems. - - Durkheim’s theory on suicide is a good example - stable patterns of social relations, or social structures, that govern human relations. - Macrostructures usually Functionalism In North America - Great depression functionalsim was deep rooted - Sociologists were focussed on a theory where social equilibrieum would happen cause of labour unrest rising (functionalism) - Talcott Parsons - identifying how various institutions must work to ensure the smooth operation of society as a whole - Schools teach students, military defends country - Robert merton - social structures may have different consequences for different groups of people and that some consequences may be disruptive or dysfunctional - dysfunctional consequences - effects of social structures that create social instability - manifest function - obvious and intended effects of social structures. - Example: transmit skills from one gen to the next - latent function - non-obvious and unintended effects of social structures. - Development a different youth culture from parents' gen Conflict Theory - Centrality of conflict in social life - Macrolevel or global structures - Relations between classes and economic standing (who dominates, etc) - major patterns of inequality in society produce social stability in some circumstances and social change in others. - Priviedlegd try to maintain it - Non-privileged struggle to increase - Eliminating privilege will reduce conflict Marx - class conflict, - the struggle between classes to resist and overcome the opposition of other classes. - a large and growing class of poor workers opposes a small and shrinking class of wealthy owners. (poor keep working for horrible for the wealthy) - Class consciousness - Poor would start to understand exploitation and create unions and labour parties which would end private ownership of the wealthy - Thought capitalism would end - We should be going as a group making money not just ourselves - Future argued against him with tech, higher wages, welfare Weber - argued that the groups stabilize society because they enjoy higher status and income than do manual workers - Politics and religion are just as important and class conflict - Protestant ethic - the belief that religious doubts can be reduced, and a state of grace ensured, if people work diligently and live simply, which had the unintended effect of increasing savings and investment, thus stimulating capitalist growth. - Verstehen - Try to understand people’s motives - Empathy - talent and initiative could enable anyone to achieve just about anything. - Symbolic interactionist Conflict Theory In North America - C wright mills  - that power is highly concentrated in American society, which is therefore less of a democracy than we are often led to believe - in the 1960s and early 1970s, so many sociologists of that era considered conflict among classes, nations, races, and generations to be the very essence of society. The Cultural Turn and Poststructuralism: Gramsci and Foucault - Conflict theory called cultural turn in 60s and 70s - How the media showed power and resistance - Antonio Gramsci - ruling classes establish their dominance partly by controlling jobs, using force, and the like. - They fund societal stuff but its biased in favour of upper class - Cultural hegemony - values become so deeply entrenched that the great majority of people accept them as common sense - Michel Foucalt - culture is the site of ongoing conflict between dominant and subordinate classes and other groups - Goal of maximizing profit people with disabilites, etc are put in hospitals, prisons - Modern societies - Internalization of control mechanisms - Know you’re being watched so they act different - Power or resistance is exercised in every social interaction - Poststructuralism - denied the stability of social relations and of cultures, their capacity to always shape how people think and act, and their neat categorization of social and cultural elements as binary opposites. - Social world is more fluid - We have more power than our categories - Structuralists - Categorized - Male vs female - Race vs race Symbolic Interactionism Protestant ethic the belief that religious doubts can be reduced, and a state of grace ensured, if people work diligently and live simply, which had the unintended effect of increasing savings and investment, thus stimulating capitalist growth. Social constructionism theory that argues that apparently natural or innate features of life are often sustained by social processes that vary historically and culturally Queer theory theory that argues that people’s sexual identities and performances are so variable that such conventional labels as male, female, gay, and lesbian fail to capture the sexual instability that characterizes the lives of many people. ​Max Weber - capitalism arose not just from economic factors but also from religious beliefs, particularly the Protestant ethic Carl E. James: A Canadian sociologist who expanded on symbolic interactionism, particularly in relation to how race, ethnicity, gender, and class intersect to shape identity and influence opportunities, particularly in education and employment for racialized youth. Queer Theory: that stable identities, like male, female, gay, and lesbian, are socially constructed labels that fail to capture the fluid and dynamic nature of people's identities. Harriet Martineau: First female sociologist. Advocated for gender equality, women’s voting rights, and higher education.. Jane Addams: Social reformer, fought for immigrant and poor rights. Modern Feminism & Feminist Theory: Gained momentum in the 1960s with the women's movement. Key points of feminist theory:  ○ Patriarchy: Male domination in society, as important as class inequality. ○ Social Construction: Male domination and female subordination are socially constructed, not biologically determined. ○ Micro & Macro Analysis: Examines gender inequality on both individual and societal levels. ○ Change for Equality: Advocates for dismantling gender inequality in education, work, and domestic roles. Jennifer Poudrier:. Research: Body image, cancer survivorship, and health among First Nations women. Challenges the genetic theory of Indigenous predisposition to diseases. Postindustrial Revolution: Shift from manufacturing to service industries due to technological advancement. Changes in employment (factories → offices). Impact on society: expansion of higher education, more women in education and workforce. CHAPTER 2 Concrete vs. Abstract Experience: Concrete Experience: Senses (seeing, touching, tasting, hearing, smelling). ○ Meaningless by itself, just raw sensations. Abstract Experience: Occurs in the mind (concepts, imagination). ○ Gives meaning to concrete experiences (e.g., understanding a $5 bill). Concepts & Propositions: Concepts: Abstract terms organizing sensory experiences (e.g., "money," "education"). Propositions: Abstract statements showing relationships between concepts (e.g., "Higher education increases income"). Sociological Thinking: Sociologists use concepts to understand social issues like poverty, deviance, and education. Ideas are propositions in the abstract world of the mind.  Sociological Research: Links abstract ideas to real-world evidence, distinguishing sociological ideas from general propositions. Methods: Sociologists formulate and test propositions with systematic research methods. Ways of Knowing: Casual Observation: Everyday, informal way of understanding the world (e.g., cause-effect relationships). Inaccurate, can lead to wrongful conclusions (e.g., eyewitness testimony). Tradition: Knowledge passed down through generations. Some valid, some not (e.g., sugar rots teeth but masturbation doesn’t cause blindness). Authority: Relying on experts. Even experts can be wrong, as seen in medical breakthroughs (e.g., ulcers caused by bacteria, not spicy food). Pseudoscience: Claims designed to sound scientific but lack evidence (e.g., Gwyneth Paltrow’s wellness brand). People often fall for pseudoscience due to scientific illiteracy. Common Errors in Inquiry: Overgeneralization: Treating exceptions as the rule (e.g., believing everyone can become rich by working hard, based on a few examples). Selective Observation: Ignoring evidence that contradicts beliefs, focusing on evidence that supports them (e.g., believing in psychics because of emotional “hits”). Illogical Reasoning: Sharing unverified claims on social media (e.g., hoaxes, fake news, conspiracy theories). Consequences of Unscientific Thinking: Deadly Consequences: Harmful actions like denying children medical treatment in favor of unproven remedies (e.g., dandelion tea instead of antibiotics). Infodemic: Misinformation during the COVID-19 pandemic caused vaccine hesitancy and increased deaths. Climate Change Denial: Misleading claims about climate change, fueled by misinformation, hinder public action and contribute to environmental harm. Key Takeaways:  Scientific thinking is necessary to avoid biases, misinformation, and harmful consequences. Errors in reasoning, like overgeneralization and selective observation, can lead to false beliefs and actions with significant societal harm. Reality Construction and Confirmation: Abstract vs. Concrete Experience: Abstract understanding vs. empirical experience are linked to form social realities. E.g., Ariana Grande's belief in ghosts influenced by personal experience. Objectivity in Science: True objectivity is about inter-subjective reliability (consistency amongst different researchers on the same topic), where independent researchers consistently observe the same thing. It doesn’t mean scientists are unbiased, but their methods minimize bias. Insiders and Outsiders: Insiders: People within a social group have intimate, detailed experiences but limited perspectives (e.g., Indigenous knowledge vs. urban knowledge). Outsiders: Observers with an external perspective can provide insights not available to insiders (e.g., RCMP understanding of Hells Angels). Social position shapes what we know—no one has a monopoly on knowledge. Positivist vs. Interpretive Traditions: Positivist Tradition: Influenced by Auguste Comte, assumes social reality exists independent of observers. Focuses on measuring objective reality using quantitative methods (e.g., surveys, statistics). Believes sociological research accumulates valid knowledge for social change. Interpretive Tradition: Emphasizes subjectivity and insiders' understanding. Rejects a universal social reality. Social realities are shaped by cultural, historical, and social experiences. Focuses on qualitative methods to understand meaning and human motives. Quantitative vs. Qualitative Research: Quantitative Research (Positivism): Uses deductive reasoning (top-down). Starts with general theories or propositions and tests them with specific observations. Often involves statistical analysis. Qualitative Research (Interpretivism): Uses inductive reasoning (bottom-up). Begins with specific observations and builds towards generalizations. Focuses on understanding the richness of social reality from a participant's perspective. Research Approaches:  Deductive: Starts with theory, tests it through observations, moving from general to specific (e.g., testing whether students today are less empathic). Inductive: Starts with observations, builds generalizations from specific instances (e.g., noticing that brown-eyed people are more fun on dates). Differences Between Quantitative and Qualitative Research: Quantitative Research: ○ Focuses on broad understanding with a few variables. ○ Provides a statistical or numerical understanding. Qualitative Research: ○ Focuses on detailed understanding of specific cases. ○ Provides rich, narrative understanding of experiences. Case Study of Unethical Research: Montreal Experiments & Project MKUltra (1950s-1960s): ○ Psychiatric patients were subjected to harmful experiments involving LSD, electric shocks, and sensory deprivation to develop mind control techniques, funded by the CIA. ○ These experiments caused lasting mental and physical damage to participants and violated ethical principles like harm minimization and voluntary participation. ○ Vulnerable Subjects: Psychiatric patients, often already facing mental health challenges, were subjected to extreme abuse, making them particularly vulnerable. The Stranger Things Connection: The fictional Hawkins Lab experiments are inspired by real-life unethical studies, where children were subjected to psychological and physical torture in an attempt to enhance their abilities, mirroring the ethics violations of MKUltra. Research Involving Indigenous Peoples: Special Considerations: Ethical guidelines for research with Indigenous Peoples include: ○ Community Consultation: Must include individual and collective consent when the research affects the community. ○ History of Unethical Treatment: Past research often exploited Indigenous populations for scientific gain, violating ethical principles. ○ Example: In 1942, researchers in northern Manitoba conducted harmful experiments on the Norway House Cree, withholding necessary nutrition for study purposes. Sampling: Central to survey reliability. Uses a sample to represent the population. Probability Sample: Each population member has a known, non-zero chance of being selected. Random Sampling: Common method, often done through random digit dialing (for telephone surveys). Challenges: Non-response, survey fatigue, and underrepresentation of disadvantaged groups (e.g., homeless). Survey Types: Telephone Surveys: Common for general population. Face-to-Face Interviews: Trained interviewers ask questions in person. Self-Administered Questionnaires: Respondents fill out paper or online forms. Understanding Relationships: Relationships (Correlations): Two things are connected when changes in one are associated with changes in the other. Causality: To establish causation, researchers need to confirm: 1. A relationship exists. 2. The independent variable occurs before the dependent variable. 3. The independent variable (not context) is responsible for the change. Spuriousness: When a third variable (control variable) explains the observed relationship, making it appear causal when it’s not. Example: Ice cream and polio—summer heat increased both ice cream consumption and outdoor activities, not ice cream itself. Official statistics, particularly the Canadian Census, provide valuable data but are subject to challenges, including biases and incomplete data, especially when participation rates are low. The reinstatement of the mandatory long-form census improved the quality of the data significantly. Cosnervatives saud no and made a voluntary one instead Sampling Methods in Qualitative Research Purposive Sampling: Researchers use their judgment to select individuals or groups who are most relevant to the research.  ○ Example: Research on LGBTQ+ communities often uses purposive sampling, finding subjects through social media. Snowball Sampling: Researchers use social networks to identify more participants. After interviewing one person, they ask for recommendations for others. ○ Example: Studying alcohol recovery by asking participants for contacts in their social networks. Challenges in Participant Observation Gaining Access: Entry can be difficult, especially with closed or hard-to-reach communities (e.g., addiction recovery groups). Gatekeepers: Some communities have gatekeepers who control access to the group. Key Informants: Community insiders who help researchers navigate the culture and activities of the group. Ethical Considerations Full Participation: Raises ethical issues, such as the potential harm of observing private activities without informed consent (e.g., Laud Humphreys’ controversial study of gay men in restrooms). Balance: Researchers must balance immersion with ethical responsibilities and the need to minimize reactivity from participants. Example: Puppy Play Study A study explored puppy play (a form of kink) among gay and bisexual men using semi-structured interviews. ○ Participants were located through snowball sampling and online profiles. ○ The researchers aimed to understand the participants' experiences with puppy play, which they defined as a form of mild sadomasochism and an escape from daily stress. ○ The study debunked myths (such as the assumption that puppy play is related to zoophilia) and emphasized the relaxing and escapist aspects of the practice (Wignall and McCormack, 2017). Focus Groups A focus group involves 10-12 participants discussing a specific topic under the guidance of a moderator. ○ Example: A study on how women use digital health technologies (like apps and wearables) employed focus groups and semi-structured interviews. Participants  discussed how digital platforms help them connect with others and empower their health decisions (Lupton and Maslen, 2019). Authenticity in Qualitative Research Authenticity is the key criterion in qualitative research, focusing on whether the study provides an accurate representation of participants' real-life experiences. ○ Unlike quantitative research, which emphasizes validity and reliability, qualitative research values whether the narrative is genuine and reflects the lived experiences of participants. Mixed methods allow researchers to triangulate their findings, using both qualitative and quantitative insights to complement each other and give a fuller picture of the subject. Comprehensive Understanding: The combination of numerical data with rich, narrative descriptions can create a more rounded, nuanced understanding of a topic. Example 1: Studying the Impact of a Controversial Anti-Abortion Pregnancy Crisis Centre A sociologist wanted to understand the experiences of students who contacted an anti-abortion pregnancy crisis centre at Acadia University. ○ Quantitative: She started with an online survey of a small sample of students, allowing them to remain anonymous due to the sensitive nature of the topic. The survey helped identify some trends or general experiences. ○ Qualitative: After realizing some important issues were missing from the survey, she followed up with qualitative interviews. These interviews helped her discover that students were distressed by the religious, anti-choice messages they encountered, leading to delayed access to healthcare. ○ Mixed Methods Outcome: The combination of both methods provided insights that neither method alone could capture. The survey gave an overview, while the interviews illuminated the emotional and psychological effects on the students. Example 2: Shoplifting and Self-Checkout (SCO) Technology A criminologist was interested in studying theft related to self-scan and checkout (SCO) technology in grocery stores.  ○ Quantitative: The researcher gathered store data on inventory loss, using sales data and video analytics to identify patterns of theft. It was found that losses from SCO were significant (up to 5% of sales), and beer was the most commonly stolen item. ○ Qualitative: The researcher conducted interviews with key informants, such as store managers, and investigated the methods of theft. The interviews revealed specific techniques, such as the "banana trick" (mis-scanning products) and "the switcheroo" (barcode switching). ○ Mixed Methods Outcome: The quantitative data gave the researcher a broad sense of the scale of theft, while the qualitative data provided detailed insights into the methods of theft. Together, they painted a complete picture of the problem, which would have been impossible with just one method. Key Considerations in Mixed Methods Research 1. Research Design: Mixed methods research requires careful planning to determine how the two methods will be combined (e.g., sequentially, simultaneously, or iteratively). ○ Sequential: One method is used first, followed by the other. For example, a survey may precede interviews to identify themes or issues for further exploration. ○ Simultaneous: Both methods are used at the same time, allowing for real-time comparison of data. ○ Iterative: Data from one method is used to refine the other method, allowing for an ongoing process of data collection and analysis. 2. Data Integration: The researcher must decide how to combine the qualitative and quantitative data. This may involve comparing results, using one type of data to explain or contextualize the other. 3. Practical Considerations: ○ Time and resource constraints may impact the ability to collect and analyze both types of data. ○ Skills: Researchers must be proficient in both qualitative and quantitative methods or collaborate with experts in each area. Challenges in Mixed Methods Research 1. Complexity: The integration of two distinct types of data requires careful analysis and thoughtful interpretation. It can be challenging to synthesize results from different methodologies.  2. Ethical Concerns: As with any research, mixed methods studies must consider ethical issues, such as informed consent, confidentiality, and the potential impact on participants. 3. Data Interpretation: Combining quantitative and qualitative results can lead to conflicting or complementary findings. Researchers must carefully navigate these differences and ensure the validity of their conclusions. Digital Sociology: Key Points Focus: Studies the impact of digital technology on social life. Method: Analyzes digital traces left by people (e.g., Google searches, social media posts, location data, purchases). Big Data: The vast amount of digital data generated by individuals, requiring powerful computational tools to analyze. Nonreactive Research: Researchers analyze data without influencing subjects, unlike traditional research methods. Examples: Social Media: Studying posts on platforms like Instagram, X (Twitter), TikTok. Google Searches: Examining patterns in search behavior. Purchase Data: Analyzing online shopping habits. Location Data: Tracking where people go using GPS. Health & Finance: Studying bank transactions and medical records. Key Terms: Digital Traces: Data generated through online activity. Big Data: Large datasets requiring advanced analysis tools. Unobtrusive Research: Studying data without direct interaction with subjects. Digital traces are the data individuals leave behind as they engage with online platforms, such as search engines, social media, and websites. These traces—ranging from search queries to browsing history—allow researchers to study human behavior and social trends in ways that were previously not possible. Here are a few examples: 1. Pornhub's Traffic Patterns during King Charles III’s Coronation: ○ Example: During the coronation of King Charles III, Pornhub observed changes in traffic patterns. In the UK, traffic dropped by 10% at the start of the ceremony but later spiked by 8% by 2:00 p.m., perhaps reflecting users’ efforts to make up for lost time.  ○ Implication: These patterns reveal how digital behavior can be influenced by significant social events, and how such insights can be used to understand broader social dynamics. 2. Gender Insights from Pornhub’s Data: ○ Example: About 25% of Pornhub's users are women, and data suggests women are more likely to watch “lesbian” content compared to men. This provides insight into the diversity of user preferences that may challenge stereotypes. ○ Implication: Analyzing digital traces on adult websites can uncover unexpected patterns in gendered behavior and preferences. Advantages of Using Big Data in Social Research 1. Uncover Hidden Behaviors: Digital data can reveal private or hidden behaviors that would otherwise be difficult to capture through traditional methods (e.g., surveys or interviews). 2. Reduction of Social Desirability Bias: Since digital traces are collected without direct interaction with the researcher, they are less likely to be influenced by the desire to present oneself in a socially acceptable way. 3. Accessibility: Big data is often available online, making it accessible to anyone with an internet connection. Moreover, in many cases, this data is free. 4. No Sampling Bias: Traditional surveys can suffer from sampling bias (e.g., non-respondents differing from respondents in significant ways). Big data typically eliminates this bias by including a vast range of participants. Disadvantages of Using Big Data 1. Lack of Representation: Big data is not always representative of the general population. Certain groups, such as low-income individuals or those in less developed countries, may be underrepresented because they are less likely to have access to the internet or digital tools. 2. Dirty Data: Big data may be "dirty" because it can include spam, duplicate entries, fake profiles, or artificial content. This can skew the analysis and make the data less reliable. 3. Artificial Intelligence Content: The rise of AI-generated content (e.g., from systems like ChatGPT) adds complexity to the study of digital data, making it harder to distinguish between human behavior and machine-generated content. 4. Ethical Issues: The collection and analysis of big data can raise ethical concerns, particularly when it comes to privacy breaches, unauthorized data collection, and the manipulation of users without consent. For example, OkCupid's experiment, where users were misled about the compatibility of potential matches, highlighted the dangers of emotionally manipulative experiments.  5. Potential for Harm: There are concerns about how big data might be used to manipulate individuals or influence their behavior without their knowledge, as well as how it could be used for surveillance or control by governments. CHAPTER 3 Culture provides the framework that turns sensory input into meaningful experiences. Cultural Conditioning: Cultural experiences shape how individuals interpret the world, making it their reality. The ability to read and understand different languages is conditioned by one’s cultural experiences. High vs. Popular Culture: High Culture: Operas, ballets, consumed by upper classes due to time, education, and money needed. Popular Culture: Mass culture (movies, pop music), accessible to all social classes. Dominant vs. Subordinate Culture: Dominant Culture: Shapes power structures (e.g., belief that hard work makes people rich), justifies wealth of the upper class. Subordinate Culture: Challenges dominant culture; skepticism from lower classes about success myths, resulting in rebellion or resistance. Cultural Appropriation: Example of Indigenous identity appropriation in universities (e.g., Mary Ellen Turpel-Lafond). Symbols in Culture: Definition: Concrete or abstract objects/terms that represent something else (e.g., flag representing a country). Meaning of Symbols: Not inherent in the symbol itself but in what it represents. Symbols must be shared among a group to be part of culture. Idiosyncratic Symbols: Personal symbols (e.g., student’s ritual of arranging food) are not cultural elements. Culture's Role:  Culture shapes responses to experiences by assigning meaning to events (e.g., names and concepts for objects, like chairs, and their associated cultural meanings). Origins of Culture: Culture adapts humans to harsh environments, replacing physical strength with intelligence. Cultural Survival Kit: Tools for human adaptation—Abstraction, Cooperation, and Production. Key Tools of Cultural Survival: Abstraction: Ability to create general concepts that organize sensory experiences (e.g., language, naming objects). Cooperation: Establishing norms and values for social life (e.g., child-rearing norms in different cultures). Production: Creation of tools/technology and social organization for survival (e.g., using tools for practical tasks and organizing social behavior). Social Organization: Culture creates a "blueprint" for social interaction and cooperation, essential for community survival. Cultural Production: Tools and social systems are central to achieving human goals (e.g., in medicine, these elements help solve real-life problems). Biological vs. Cultural Influence: Evolutionary Psychology: Argues that genes play a significant role in shaping human behavior, often minimizing the role of culture. Biological Determinism: The idea that certain behaviors are "natural" and determined by DNA (e.g., "it's in their DNA"). Example: Male Promiscuity and Female Fidelity: Evolutionary Argument: ○ Men are biologically inclined to seek multiple sexual partners due to plentiful sperm. ○ Women are inclined to be faithful for protection and support during pregnancy and child-rearing, as they produce fewer eggs. ○ These behaviors are seen as "hardwired" and essential for species survival. Criticism of Evolutionary Psychology:  Oversimplification: Assumes only two categories (male/female) and rigid sexual behaviors for each. Variation in Behavior: People’s sexual identities, preferences, and behaviors vary widely and can change due to social circumstances. Social Influence: Social environment influences behavior and even gene development, challenging biological determinism. Sapir-Whorf Thesis: Key Idea: Language shapes our thoughts and perceptions of the world. Path 1 to 2: People create concepts about important things in their environment (e.g., types of camels or snow). Path 2 to 3: Language develops to refer to these concepts. Path 3 to 1: Language influences how we perceive and think about the world. Examples of Cultural Influence on Language: Camels and Snow: Nomadic Arabs have many words for camels, and Inuit/Sami people have multiple terms for types of snow, reflecting environmental importance. Hockey Terms: Words like "poke-check" and "tic-tac-toe" are unique to Canadian hockey culture and may not have equivalents in other languages (e.g., Japanese). Language and Gender Inequality: The use of derogatory terms (e.g., "babe," "ho," "bitch") to refer to women can shape perceptions of women as sexual objects. Feminists argue that changing this language is essential for reducing gender inequality and dismantling rape culture. Declining Indigenous and Other Languages: Language as Power: The spread of European languages (e.g., English, French, Spanish) often led to the elimination of indigenous languages through colonization. Indigenous Languages in Canada: ○ Policies like the residential school system aimed to assimilate Indigenous peoples, discouraging the use of their languages. ○ The percentage of Indigenous Canadians speaking their native languages has drastically decreased: from 87.4% in 1951 to 8.2% in 2021. Impact on Identity and Culture: The loss of a language leads to the loss of traditions, customs, and identity, often replaced by those of the colonial power.  Modern Media: Television, movies, and the internet contribute to the decline of minority languages. Ethnocentrism and Functionalist Explanations of Immigration Ethnocentrism: Judging another culture based on the standards of one's own, leading to biased or negative views. Immigration in Canada: Historically, Canada was predominantly White and Christian. Post-1960s, immigration policies became more inclusive, diversifying Canada's population. Immigrant Population: Today, around 25% of Canada's population is racialized, with significant concentrations in Toronto, Vancouver, and Montréal. Public Opinion on Immigration: 29% of Canadians believe immigration levels are too high, especially those with less education and income. Functionalist Views on Immigration: ○ Negative View (Less educated/income): Immigrants seen as a drain on resources and economy. ○ Positive View (More educated/income): Immigrants seen as beneficial to the economy through skills, business creation, and population growth. Research Findings: Immigrants help fill job shortages, contribute to taxes, start businesses, and sustain education systems, making high immigration levels economically functional. Ethnocentrism's Role: Canadians with less education/income often oppose immigration due to ethnocentric views, perceiving immigrants as not adopting Canadian values. Culture as Freedom and Constraint Culture as Dependent Variable: Culture results from social relations and external factors. Culture as Independent Variable: Culture shapes and constrains social relations; symbolic interactionists believe that people creatively shape their cultural environment. Freedom and Constraint in Culture: Culture can both enhance human freedom through creative choices and constrain social relations by shaping norms and behaviors. Multiculturalism in Québec Québec has unique linguistic and constitutional rights. Bill 21 (2019) bans religious symbols in public institutions, seen as discriminatory against non-Christian minorities. Support for Bill 21 is higher in Québec (64%) and lower in other parts of Canada (24%). Conflict Theory & Culture  Conflict theory views the struggle for cultural diversity as a rights revolution, with marginalized groups demanding equal rights. The Universal Declaration of Human Rights (1948) initiated a global rights revolution, including women's rights, racialized group rights, and LGBTQ+ rights. From Diversity to Globalization In preindustrial societies, culture was homogeneous with defined rules; postindustrial societies are marked by cultural fragmentation. Globalization connects economies, states, and cultures, breaking down isolation. Example: McDonald's and Bollywood represent the global spread of culture. Postmodernism Postmodernism reflects eclectic blending of cultural elements, erosion of authority, and decline in consensus on core values. People combine cultural practices from various times and places (e.g., blending religion and spirituality). There is an erosion of authority, with increasing skepticism of traditional institutions. Consensus on values has declined, leading to more diverse and personalized belief systems. Culture as Constraint Culture's Duality: Culture can offer freedom (diversity, globalization) but also impose constraints through rationalization, consumerism, and cultural capital. These elements increase social control and privilege. Rationalization: ○ Max Weber: Rationalization means the most efficient way to achieve goals, but it can have negative, unintended consequences. ○ Iron Cage: Weber saw rationalization as restricting life, making people feel trapped in an "iron cage." ○ Time Use: Time management, such as the work clock, became a way to regulate people’s lives, replacing natural rhythms with rigid schedules. ○ Workday Regimentation: Introduced by factory owners in Germany to increase productivity. This regimentation continues today, with many people reporting time crunches and feeling that life is too hectic. ○ Life in Big Cities: People in full-time jobs with families face a packed schedule, making it difficult to find time for enjoyment. Consumerism:  ○ Defining Self through Purchases: Consumerism links our identity to what we buy. Advertising capitalizes on this, creating associations between celebrities and products. ○ Advertising and Identity: Ads tie products to social status, encouraging people to display designer labels and products as a mark of their identity. ○ The Constrained Consumer: Despite more options, consumerism pressures people to conform to trends, even leading to debt. Digital Technology: ○ Liberation and Constraint: Smartphones and social media provide benefits like easier communication but can also create addiction and anxiety, decreasing attention spans and affecting relationships. ○ Compulsion: The constant need for notifications, likes, and instant gratification can override personal preferences and well-being. Countercultures and Consumerism: ○ Subcultures vs. Countercultures: Countercultures, like the 1960s hippies, challenge dominant cultural norms. Consumerism often tames these movements by turning them into profitable trends. ○ Hip-Hop Example: Originated as a voice for marginalized youth but was co-opted by the mainstream and became a commercialized genre. The political messages of hip-hop were muted as it became a profitable cultural commodity. Definitions: Socialization: The process by which individuals learn to function in social life, adopt roles, and develop self-awareness through interaction with others. Role: The expected behavior of a person in a particular position within society. Evidence Children Need Social Contact: Victor (Savage of Aveyron): Lacked speech, emotional connections, and intellectual engagement despite intensive efforts. Romanian Orphans: Physical development caught up post-adoption, but emotional and intellectual deficits remained (smaller brains, difficulty fitting in, criminal behavior). Prolonged Isolation Effects: Children: Severe impact on brain development, emotional bonds, and intellectual growth (Victor, Romanian orphans). Adults: Less severe but still leads to emotional detachment, social dysfunction, and cognitive issues. Key Points:  Self-Image Development: Infants initially cannot distinguish themselves from caregivers but begin developing a self-image as they interact socially. Freud's Theory of the Self: Freud argued that the self develops through social interaction, not naturally. Infants learn to balance their needs with social expectations through responses from caregivers. Social Interaction: The self develops as children learn self-control and socially appropriate behavior through interactions, rather than as an automatic process. Definitions: Self: The sense of who you are as an independent individual, shaped by your ideas and attitudes about yourself. Self-Image: The mental picture you have of yourself, developed over time through social interactions and responses from others. Key People: Sigmund Freud: Pioneered the theory that the self emerges through social interactions, emphasizing that infants develop a self-image by learning to balance their desires with social realities. Key Points: Cooley's Looking-Glass Self: Self-concept develops through social interactions, based on how others perceive and respond to us. Mead's Self Development: The self consists of the "I" (impulsive) and "me" (socially constructed). Social interaction shapes the "me." Mead's Four Stages: 1. Imitation 2. Role-Playing 3. Game Stage (taking multiple roles) 4. Generalized Other (understanding societal norms) Nature vs. Nurture: Epigenetics shows genes and environment interact in shaping behavior and self-concept. Definitions: Looking-Glass Self: Self-concept formed by others' reactions. I: Impulsive aspect of the self (Mead). Me: Social aspect of the self, shaped by societal expectations (Mead). Generalized Other: Understanding societal norms and applying them to self-evaluation (Mead). Key People: Charles Horton Cooley: Developed the looking-glass self theory. George Herbert Mead: Introduced the concepts of "I," "me," and the stages of self-development. Life Course Definition: Distinct stages of life, socially and historically determined. Key Example: "Terrible twos" term in Canada originated in 1951. Adulthood: No set age; historically linked to milestones like education, full-time job, marriage, and parenthood (Settersten, Ottusch, and Schneider, 2015). Childhood and Adolescence Childhood: ○ Preindustrial: Children worked by age 5, adults by 10-12 (Ariès, 1962). ○ Modern: Prolonged period of education and lack of adult responsibility (Mintz, 2017). Adolescence: Identified by G. Stanley Hall (1904), lasted 14-24 years, marked by moodiness, rebellion, and change. Social Significance of Age Age: A defining social characteristic, influencing laws and social expectations. Subjective Age: People often feel younger or older than their actual age, impacting well-being (Montepare, 2020). Cohort and Generation Cohort: Group sharing characteristics (e.g., same age, same birth year). Generation: A social category of people born in similar periods with shared values. Linked to social change, particularly during rapid societal shifts (Eisenstadt, 1956; Mannheim, 1952). Generations in Canada: 1. Greatest Generation: Born 1900–1928, shaped by the Great Depression and WWII. 2. Silent Generation: Born 1929–1945, marked by WWII but avoided combat. 3. Baby Boomers: Born 1946–1964, experienced cultural revolution in the '60s and '70s. 4. Generation X: Born 1966–1981, "latchkey children," grew up during divorce rate rise.  5. Millennials: Born 1982–1994, first to come of age in the 21st century; experienced the Great Recession. 6. Generation Z: Born 1995–2010, characterized by social media and multitasking. Key People: G. Stanley Hall: Identified adolescence as a distinct stage (1904). Ariès: Suggested childhood was a modern invention (1962). Eisenstadt and Mannheim: Early theories on generational identity and social change. Trends: Teen Motherhood: Declined across generations in Canada due to changing attitudes and contraception improvements. Millennials & Gen Z: Digital natives, with distinct preferences in technology use (e.g., text vs. email, Instagram vs. Facebook). Theories and Agents of Socialization Functionalism: Views socialization as maintaining societal order. Conflict/Feminist Theories: Focus on discord during socialization, especially concerning class, gender, etc. Symbolic Interactionism: Highlights individual creativity and how people modify societal values and roles. Families Primary Socialization: Children learn language, skills, and societal values in a nurturing environment. Parenting Trends: Parents are more child-centered and spend more time on children's development (Faircloth, 2021; Walper & Kreyenfield, 2022). Helicopter Parenting: Over-involvement can hinder emotional regulation and independence (Cui et al., 2019). Gender Socialization Age of Awareness: Children begin gender identification at 18 months (Martin & Ruble, 2011). Parental Role: Parents shape children's gender norms through activities, clothing, and toys (Leaper & Farkas, 2015; MacPhee & Prendergast, 2019). Schools: Functions and Conflicts  Role: Schools teach academic knowledge and social values, often differing from family views. Clashes: Parents and educators sometimes disagree on what children should learn (e.g., gender identity, sexual orientation) (Azpiri, 2022). Hidden Curriculum: Teaches conformity (e.g., punctuality, respect for authority), and often benefits privileged groups (Willis, 1984). Conflict Theory: Economically marginalized students resist the hidden curriculum, perpetuating social inequalities (Willis, 1984). Symbolic Interactionism and the Self-Fulfilling Prophecy Thomas Theorem: "Situations we define as real become real in their consequences" (Thomas, 1966). Self-Fulfilling Prophecy: Expectations influence outcomes; negative expectations can lead to underachievement, particularly in marginalized groups (Rosenthal & Jacobson, 1968). Teacher Expectations: High teacher expectations improve student performance, while low expectations contribute to underachievement (Hill & Jones, 2021). Key People Höppner: Emphasized the dynamic and often conflicting nature of socialization. Martin & Ruble: Studied the development of gender identity in children. Willis: Introduced the concept of the hidden curriculum and its impact on marginalized students. Thomas: Developed the Thomas theorem, foundational to symbolic interactionism. Rosenthal & Jacobson: Conducted research on teacher expectations and their impact on student performance. Peer Groups Definition: Groups of similar age/status individuals, especially influential during childhood/adolescence. Role: Aid in identity development and potential rebellion against adult authority. Conflict: Often temporary, with families having a long-term influence on beliefs and ambitions. Influence: Prepare youth for adult world dynamics (class, gender, racial inequalities). Reference: Corsaro (2020); Crosnoe & Johnson (2011); Simons-Morton & Chen (2009). Mass and Social Media  Definition: Communication technologies (TV, internet, radio, etc.) impacting large audiences. Internet Use: 95% of adults in Canada accessed the internet in 2022; seniors' use increased to 90%. Smartphone Connectivity: Continuous; 57.5% of Canadians aged 15-24 check smartphones frequently. Risks: Superficial interactions, diminished face-to-face conversation/empathy (Turkle, 2015), permanence of online posts. Cyber-Bullying Definition: Use of digital means to threaten, harass, or exclude others. Impact: High-profile case: Amanda Todd’s suicide led to legal changes in Canada. Victim Stats: 1 in 3 high school students in Ontario reported being victims. Differences: Easier anonymity, bigger audience, potential for victims to become aggressors. Experts: Dennehy et al. (2020); Farrington et al. (2023); Law et al. (2012). Resocialization and Total Institutions Definition: Rapid, intentional change in values, roles, or self-conception. Examples: Initiation rituals (e.g., gangs) and strict control in total institutions (e.g., prisons, asylums). Stanford Prison Experiment: Zimbardo (1972); Haney, Banks & Zimbardo (1973) showed quick behavioral changes under total institution conditions. Historical Example: Canada’s residential school system for Indigenous children, leading to generational trauma and social issues. Social Media and Feminism Role: Mass media influence behavior and reinforce cultural standards. Female Representation: More diverse roles but still cognitive ability depicted as male-dominated (Gálvez et al., 2019). Implication: Reinforces stereotypes, affecting career choices (e.g., underrepresentation in science). Flexible Self Definition: Lifelong self-development; adapting to new roles (e.g., career, parenting, aging). Anticipatory Socialization: Learning norms for future roles. Modern Changes: Globalization and body modification have increased identity flexibility. Key People Corsaro (2020): Discussed peer groups’ role in identity. Crosnoe & Johnson (2011); Simons-Morton & Chen (2009): Families’ influence over peer groups. Sherry Turkle (2015): Noted superficial interactions from smartphone use. Zimbardo (1972, 2008): Stanford Prison Experiment, total institutions. Dennehy et al. (2020); Law et al. (2012): Cyber-bullying research. Gálvez, Tiffenberg & Altszyler (2019): Gender representation in film analysis. Key Points Intersection Example: The intersection of Chicago Avenue and East 38th Street in Minneapolis became a significant social space after George Floyd's murder, highlighting the "social" dimension in understanding interactions. Social Space: Sociology studies the social context in which interactions occur, beyond physical dimensions (height, width, depth, time). Social Order and Organizations: Social environments are organized and exhibit patterned behavior, like classrooms, which function due to established norms. Statuses: ○ Definition: Culturally defined positions in an organization (e.g., student, professor). ○ Types: Ascribed Status: Imposed at birth (e.g., race, sex). Achieved Status: Earned through effort (e.g., marital status, occupation). ○ Master Status: A status central to a person’s identity, either self-embraced or imposed (e.g., race, gender). Roles: ○ Definition: Norms dictating expected behavior for a status. ○ Role Performance: Conforming behavior as role-playing; deviation as role-making. Role Conflict vs. Role Strain: ○ Role Conflict: Different role demands from multiple statuses (e.g., mother and teacher). ○ Role Strain: Incompatible role demands within a single status. Definitions Social Interaction: Process where individuals act in relation to others. Status Set: Collection of all statuses an individual holds. Role Set: Collection of roles linked to each status. Role-Making: Creative performance of roles, showcasing individuality.  Role-Playing: Conforming exactly to social expectations. Norms: Accepted ways of behaving in a given status. Key People C. Wright Mills: Introduced the concept of the "sociological imagination," which connects individual experiences with larger social contexts. Karen Kampen: Mentioned in the context of the informal memorial to George Floyd. Kimmel (2018): Referenced for norms related to traditional masculinity. George Floyd: His murder led to significant social and cultural movements and reevaluation of social interactions and justice. Interaction Types: ○ Instrumental Communication: Purpose-driven (e.g., asking a question for information). ○ Expressive Communication: End in itself (e.g., expressing joy after a good grade). Mediated Interaction: ○ Communication mediated by technology (e.g., postal services, social media). ○ Can vary in social cues, synchronicity, distance, and reach. ○ Face-to-face: rich in cues, synchronous, hard to replicate, short distance. ○ Social media: low social cues, can be saved, asynchronous or synchronous, wide reach. Medium Influence: ○ Marshall McLuhan (1964): “The medium is the message”—medium affects communication. Social Media Effects: ○ Mixed outcomes on empathy and well-being. ○ Can decrease empathy by reducing non-verbal cues and enabling anonymity. ○ Can foster empathy through prosocial behavior (e.g., checking on friends). Research on Empathy: ○ Twenge (2014): Decline in empathy among North American undergraduates. ○ Vossen & Valkenburg (2016): Positive prosocial use linked to increased empathy. ○ Parasocial Relationships: One-way emotional bonds with media figures (Wohl, 1956). Case Study: ○ Depp v. Heard trial (2022): Highlighted selective empathy and social media’s role in shaping opinions. Well-Being: ○ Displacement Hypothesis: Social media may weaken in-person interactions.  ○ Bekalu et al. (2020): Positive mental health if use is routine and without emotional dependence. ○ COVID-19 Impact: Increased reliance on online interaction as a substitute. ○ Youth Suicide Rates: Increase in young girls' suicides post-2009 potentially linked to social media use. Key People: Marshall McLuhan (1964): Theorist of media’s influence on communication. Twenge (2014): Studied empathy decline among undergraduates. Vossen & Valkenburg (2016): Research on prosocial media use. Richard Wohl (1956): Coined “parasocial relationships”. Bekalu et al. (2020): Study on the mental health impacts of routine social media use. Critical Case: Depp v. Heard Trial (2022): Showcased parasocial relationships and aggressive fan behavior online. Trends & Concerns: Technology Determinism: The belief that technology leads to inevitable negative impacts. Role-Making: Emphasizes individual choice in how technology is used. Emotions and Social Interaction ○ Emotions are structured by social norms, roles, and statuses. ○ Interaction patterns show gendered norms (e.g., women laugh more than men, indicating status roles in interactions). Feminist Theory and Emotions ○ Provine (2000): Women laugh more in mixed-gender conversations, reflecting status dynamics. ○ Speer and Stokoe (2011): Men maintain authority through long monologues and less assistance-seeking. ○ Laughter reflects attention: higher-status individuals (men) typically earn more attention; lower-status individuals (women) pay more attention. Emotion Labour vs. Emotion Management ○ Emotion Management: Everyday regulation of emotions according to cultural scripts. ○ Emotion Labour: Paid emotional regulation required in jobs (e.g., customer service, nursing).  Arlie Hochschild: Differentiated emotion management from emotion labour; ○ noted women often do more emotion labour due to societal roles. Examples of Emotion Labour ○ Jobs involving emotion labour include flight attendants, sales clerks, nurses. ○ Tipping culture amplifies the pressure for emotion labour. ○ Veterinary Medicine: Intense emotion work related to euthanasia, with significant mental health implications (Morris, 2012; Tomasi, 2019). ○ Statistics: High suicide rates among veterinarians due to stress and emotional toll (Perrett et al., 2020). Impact of Emotion Labour ○ The shift to a service-based economy increases the demand for emotion labour. ○ Companies assess emotional intelligence in hiring, controlling emotional displays in the workplace (Sun, 2016). ○ Women are disproportionately affected as they perform more emotion labour. Autonomy in Emotion Labour ○ Research by Tolich (1993): Supermarket clerks manage emotions due to: Constraint: Management-enforced norms for politeness. Autonomy: Clerks' use of emotion for personal enjoyment and routine management. ○ Regulated emotion management can cause alienation; autonomous emotion management can be liberating. Key Figures and Sources Conflict Theory of Social Interaction Definition: Suggests that social interaction is guided by competition for resources like attention, approval, prestige, and wealth. Core Idea: Individuals aim to maximize social, emotional, and economic gains while minimizing costs. Power Dynamics: Interactions often form hierarchies where high-status individuals hold power over lower-status individuals. Competing for Attention John and Mary Example: Illustrates conversational competition for attention where individuals subtly shift focus to themselves. Charles Derber (1979): Analyzed 1500 recorded conversations, finding that North Americans subtly compete for conversational focus while maintaining an appearance of interest in others. Key Quote: People use “exquisitely subtle” practices to avoid appearing egocentric while shifting attention to themselves. Power and Social Interaction Max Weber (1947): Defined power as the ability to impose one’s will despite resistance. Studies: ○ Kraus and Keltner (2009): Found that wealthy people show less empathy and concern for those less fortunate. ○ Courtney et al. (2020); Lönnqvist et al. (2019): Drivers of expensive cars are less likely to yield to pedestrians, showing a correlation between wealth and assertive behavior. Modes of Interaction Domination: ○ Definition: Interaction where power is highly concentrated in a few hands. ○ Emotion: Characterized by fear among subordinates. ○ Efficiency: Low due to reliance on coercion. ○ Examples: Guards vs. inmates, landowners vs. enslaved individuals. Competition: ○ Definition: Interaction with unequal but less extreme power distribution. ○ Emotion: Envy among participants. ○ Efficiency: Medium; driven by respect and moderate compensation. Cooperation: ○ Definition: Power is more equally distributed, fostering trust. ○ Emotion: Trust as the key characteristic. ○ Efficiency: High; promotes mutual satisfaction and better productivity. ○ Example: Equitable marriages leading to stable relationships. Efficiency and Motivation Randall Collins (1982): Emphasized that efficient workers identify with their employers and enjoy their work, leading to better output. Psychological Insight (Skinner, 1953): Punishment is less effective than positive reinforcement in motivating individuals. Workplace Practices: Including workers in decision-making, encouraging creativity, and avoiding significant salary disparities boost morale and productivity. Summary of Findings Coercion vs. Reward: Fear-based control results in low efficiency; respectful and rewarding treatment results in better performance. Worker Engagement: High worker morale and identification with employers drive initiative and creative effort.  Cultural Examples: Company picnics, team-building activities, and pre-work rituals (e.g., Japan’s company songs) enhance worker-employer relationships. Power and Social Status: ○ Power is embedded in social statuses and relationships. ○ Preferred statuses access more resources, perpetuating privilege. ○ High-status individuals can set and enforce norms beneficial to themselves. ○ Lower-status individuals face harsher punishments for crimes than higher-status ones (e.g., street vs. suite crime). ○ Power often inherited, not solely due to personal attributes (intelligence, hard work). ○ Cultural scaffolding legitimizes existing power structures, making them seem natural. Cultural Scaffolding: ○ Cultural values/beliefs that justify and normalize power structures. ○ Language correction and learning standard English as an example of cultural scaffolding that perpetuates privilege. Symbolic Interactionism: ○ Interaction not solely competitive; includes norms of fairness and altruism. ○ People act based on learned norms, considering the perspective of others (“taking the role of the other” – George Herbert Mead). ○ Social norms, roles, and statuses are learned and modified through interaction. Dramaturgical Analysis (Erving Goffman): ○ Life as a stage; individuals as actors performing roles. ○ Front stage: Public role-playing using props and set lines (e.g., restaurant servers). ○ Backstage: More relaxed, private behavior but still role-playing. ○ Implies no single true self, only different roles in varied contexts. ○ Role Distancing: Acting in a way that shows lack of full commitment to a role (e.g., temporary jobs). ○ Impression Management: Efforts to present oneself positively; common in medical students modeling after doctors, using jargon, and asking questions they know answers to impress teachers. People: George Herbert Mead: Developed the concept of “taking the role of the other.” Erving Goffman: Created dramaturgical analysis; noted for the idea of life as a stage. Haas and Shaffir (1987): Studied impression management in medical students. Roscigno (2012): Discussed cultural scaffolding. Han, Roberts, and Korte (2015): Mentioned in context of role learning in medical school. Key Points on Social Interaction, Ethnomethodology, and Nonverbal Communication: Goffman’s View of Social Interaction: Goffman’s Perspective: Portrays social interaction as role-playing, not fully authentic (cynical view). Importance: Social stability depends on adhering to norms, roles, and statuses. Ethnomethodology: Definition: Study of methods ordinary people use to make sense of interactions (Harold Garfinkel). Focus: Pre-existing shared norms and understandings essential for social life. Breaching Experiments: Disrupting interaction patterns to highlight the importance of norms. 1. Example: Students standing still in public; passersby adapt without communication, demonstrating shared norms. Findings: 1. Social life is orderly. 2. People re-establish order after disruptions. 3. Order maintained by shared norms. 4. Orderly behavior without verbal communication. Nonverbal Communication: Body Language and Facial Expressions: ○ Communicate conformity to gender roles and social status. ○ Expansive postures linked to power; smaller, contained postures seen as "feminine." Status Cues: Indicators like dress and behavior inform social status but can lead to stereotypes (e.g., carding in Toronto). Cultural Differences in Communication: Gestures and Body Language: Meanings vary across cultures (e.g., “fig” gesture). Zones of Space (Hall, 1966): ○ Intimate zone: ~0.5 m (close contact). ○ Personal zone: 0.5-1.5 m (friends, limited contact). ○ Social zone: 1.5-3.5 m (formal, handshake only). ○ Public zone: >3.5 m (speaker/audience). Theories of Social Interaction:  1. Feminist Theory: Focuses on status differences between genders. 2. Conflict Theory: Views interaction as competition for resources. 3. Symbolic Interactionist: Emphasizes interpreting and negotiating norms. Machine Translation and AI: Advancements: Geoffrey Hinton’s work on neural networks enables better machine translation, understanding context. Challenges: Nonverbal cues are complex and essential for full human-like communication. Key Figures: Erving Goffman: Noted for dramaturgical approach, front-stage/backstage behavior. Harold Garfinkel: Introduced ethnomethodology and breaching experiments. Geoffrey Hinton: Pioneered neural network research for AI learning. Questions for Review: Role distancing: Acting in a way that indicates detachment from a role (e.g., a 12-year-old cleaning a toilet with reluctance). Front-stage vs. Backstage: Front-stage is public performance, while backstage is private behavior. Status Cues Examples: ○ Success: Using professional attire in job interviews. ○ Failure: Judging someone inaccurately based on appearance, leading to misunderstandings.