Research Methods in Mass Communication PDF

Research Methods in Mass Communication Dr. Mennat Allah Salem  Chapters to be covered: ◼ Introduction to scientific research ◼ Elements of the research ◼ Research ethics ◼ Sampling ◼ Qualitative research methods ◼ Quantitative research methods (survey and experimental des...

Research Methods in Mass Communication Dr. Mennat Allah Salem  Chapters to be covered: ◼ Introduction to scientific research ◼ Elements of the research ◼ Research ethics ◼ Sampling ◼ Qualitative research methods ◼ Quantitative research methods (survey and experimental design) What Is Research? ◼ It is attempt to discover something in order to figure out a problem or find an answer to a question. ◼ Mass Media Research is an attempt to discover something related to the field and process of mass communication.  Basic Domains of Mass Media Research 1- Audience Research: Attitudes, beliefs, behaviors, opinions, preferences, uses, evaluations. 2- Content Research: characteristics, possible effects, formats, values, representation, issues and topics. 3-Organization Research: work flow, decision making, gate keeping, restrictions, ownership impact, political economy. We are all RESEARCHERS ! ◼ We are doing research everyday to achieve our routine tasks. ◼ Consider the number of things you need to thinks about, analyze, test, or evaluate to perform daily tasks. ◼ When we get to make any decision, we conduct accountless number of tests (evaluations) and rely on information from previous experiences. Benefits of Research ◼ For Individuals: even if you don’t intend to become a professional researcher, it is important to learn how to collect information and analyze it in order to reach a sound decision. ◼ For Media Companies: research is a matter of existence. Unless media outlets find out what their audience want, they will lose their users in the highly competitive marketplace of media and communication technology. ◼ Market research should play a major role in determining what kind of programming content is most likely to resonate with the majority of consumers (media users) in the area covered by the medium. ◼ Therefore, investing in a periodic and ongoing process of market research is essential for success in today’s overcrowded media landscape. ◼ Being unaware of changing attitudes of users and the new trends and preferences is not an option.  Success Formula There are 3 BASIC STEPS to achieving success in business, including media business: 1- Find out what the people want. 2- Give it to them. 3- Tell them you gave it to them. The way to find out what people want is through research, and that is what this course is all about.  The Development of Mass Media Research Mass Media Research has evolved within several particular steps. Similar patterns of research have been applied over different media outlets. Phase 1: The Medium itself Phase 2: Uses and Users Phase 3: Effects of Medium Phase 4: Medium Improvement  Phase 1: The Medium itself - What are its characteristics & functions? - How does it works? - What technology does it involve? - How is it similar or different than previous types? - How much will it cost? - Who will have access to its content?  Phase 2: Uses and Users of the Medium ◼ How do people use the medium? ◼ For what reason do they use it? ◼ What gratifications does the medium provide? ◼ Who are the groups of users? ◼ What types of information and entertainment does the medium replace? ◼ Is it used as predicted in initial research?  Phase 3: Effects of the Medium ◼ How much time do people spend with the medium? ◼ Does it change people’s opinions, perceptions and perspectives? ◼ What are the expectations and evaluations of the users? ◼ Are there any harmful effects related to its use? ◼ In what way does the medium benefit people?  Phase 4: Medium Improvement ◼ Research is done to know how the medium can be improved. ◼ Is there a way to develop the medium content to be more useful or entertaining? ◼ Can the medium broaden its base of users? ◼ How can new technologies be used to enhance the medium performance? ◼ The four phases process do not suggest they are conducted in a linear way, as when the phase is over it is not considered again. ◼ When a medium is well established, research may be done within the four phases. ◼ This is owing to two basic reasons; 1- Media technologies are rapidly evolving. (new types of televisions) 2- Research is a never ending process. (There are always unanswered questions). In Private Sector Research ◼ An additional element gets through each phase; how can the medium make money? ◼ A great deal of research in PRIVATE SECTOR (market research) is related to questions like: - How to save money? - How to gain more of it? - How to take it away from competitors? Mass Media Research is Inter-disciplinary ◼ Before 1960, most of the media research originated in psychology and sociology departments. ◼ In the1960s, media departments grew rapidly and media researchers entered the scene. Since then, mass media scholars dominate the field of media studies. ◼ Today’s trend is to encourage inter-disciplinary studies, where participation of psychologists, sociologists and political scientists are invited. ◼ Modern mass media research includes a variety of psychological and sociological subject matters. Media Research & Scientific Method ◼ All research begins with a question or proposition (assumption) about a certain phenomenon. ◼ For example in media: - Why viewers prefer a TV show than another? - Which types of viewing platforms attract most viewers? - Which types of ads are most effective in persuading consumers? - What are the most prominent issues covered in social media platforms? - What are the basic uses of social networks among children?  The previous questions can be answered with well-designed research process. BUT the most challenging part here is to determine the data collection and analysis method that can best provide answers to your specific questions Scientific Method ◼ The word “research method” refers to one of the possible approaches (pathways) to find an answer to a question. ◼ The “Scientific Method” refers to an organized, objective, and empirical procedure to describe, interpret or analyze a certain phenomenon. ◼ It consists of certain steps and procedures of collecting, analyzing and verifying data.  Research Procedures To investigate research questions, researchers follow a scientific procedure which consists of eight steps: 1- Select a problem (a basic question to be answered) 2- Review of previous research & relevant theory 3- Develop research questions and hypotheses 4- Determine research design (the appropriate methodology) 5- Collect relevant data 6- Analyze the data and interpret the results 7- Present the result in appropriate form. 8- Replicate the study (when necessary)  Each step of the previous eight-step process depends on and interacts with all the others to produce an efficient research study. - Before you search the relevant literature you must have a well-defined research problem. - Before you state your research questions you have to check previous studies. - You cannot collect the data unless you select the research design. - The review of literature can be useful in further refining the initial research problem. - During data collection you may add more questions to your list of research questions. This prescribed formula is suitable for all areas of scientific research. This 8-step formula must be followed to increase the probability of producing relevant and accurate results. Researchers who don’t follow this rigorous procedure do not belong to the scientific method and increase the amount of error in their study. Selecting a Research Topic Some researchers are able to determine a research area that is interesting to them. They conduct several studies to obtain a broad picture of their research area of interest. Some others, especially beginning researchers, do not know where to start. For those, selecting a research topic is a main concern. Fortunately, there are many sources available for those young researchers that provide a wealth of research ideas and topics. Sources of Research Ideas 1- Professional Journals 2- Magazines & Periodicals 3- Research Summaries 4- The Internet 5- Everyday Situations  Professional Journals - Academic Communication Journals: are excellent sources for information. Most researchers conclude their studies with suggestions for further topics to investigate. Some issues are built around specific research theme. - Professional trade publications: offer a wealth of information relevant to mass media research and highlight the current topics in mass media.  Magazines & Periodicals - Articles in magazines and periodicals offer a valuable source for research topics, although some consider them as unprofessional and meant to the public. - These articles tend to avoid using technical jargon and are written by highly trained professionals. - They provide various perspectives on complex issues of communication and raise interesting questions that researchers can investigate. Research Summaries - Professional organizations periodically publish summaries of studies conducted in a certain mass media field. - This type of publications is also know as “meta- research” or “summary research” - These summaries offer useful information about research topics as they include a wide variety of studies on a specific research area.  The Internet - The Internet is an essential tool in the hand of researchers. It must be considered when identifying a research topic or idea. - Search engines make it so easy to find information on almost every topic. - You may at first search for broad categories to see the variety of questions and perspectives, then narrow down your search to get more relevant items that matches your specific research.  Everyday Situations - Every day people are exposed to various types of communication via mass media outlets and personal discussions. - Researchers can get ideas for studies through these interactions as many questions might appear during these daily situations. - Many significant studies were based on questions arising from everyday encounters with the different forms of mass communication. Determination of Topic Relevance Once the research idea is specified, the researcher should make sure that his topic is worth studying. This can be done through providing answers to the following questions: 1- Is the topic too broad? 2- Can the problem be investigated? 3- Can the data be analyzed? 4- Is the problem significant? 5- Can the results be generalized? 6- What are the cost and time of the study? 7- Is the planned approach appropriate to the project? 8- Is there any potential harm to the subjects? 1- Is the topic too broad? - Most research studies concentrate on one small and specific area of a field. Researchers do not attempt to investigate the entire field in one study. - However, beginning researchers often choose topics that are too broad to cover in one study. - You have to narrow down your idea and clearly state your goal of the study. - You should specify what type of content you are going to analyze, which segment of audience you will survey, what kind of effect you will investigate, will you analyze people’s opinions, attitudes or behaviors, etc. 2- Can the problem be investigated? - A research topic might prove unsuitable for investigation simply because the question being asked has no answer or cannot be answered with the facilities and information available. - For example: you cannot study exposure of non-users of TV to other types of media as it is rare to find subjects who do not use television (or young people with no mobile phones in their possession). Also you cannot investigate people’s opinion toward a certain type of content if it is not available in their country or they do not usually expose to. - Another point to consider is whether all terms and concepts of the study can be defined and measured. - Researchers could review available literature to determine if there were any problems in previous study of similar topics and, if any, what methods were used to overcome these problems? 3- Can the data be analyzed? - The researcher should consider whether the data to be collected will be adequate and reliable, whether the subjects will be willing to answer truthfully and what value the data will have once gathered. - Researchers need to have enough data to make the study worth-while. - It would be unacceptable to analyze only 10 subjects’ behavior or conduct a survey on 25 people because the results could not be generalized to the entire population. 4- Is the problem significant? It is important to determine if the study has a merit before the research process is started. The researcher must know if the study has practical, theoretical or empirical value. - Will the results add to the previous body of knowledge in the field? - Does the goal of the study help further the understanding of the problems and questions in the field? - Will any useful action, based on the results, be possible? - Does the researcher use any new combinations of methods to investigate the problem and achieve the main goal? This doesn’t mean that each study should end up with earth-shattering results, well-specified problems and smaller questions are far more important than addressing broad and reluctant questions. 5- Can the results be generalized? - Research should have “external validity”, which refers to the possibility that the expected results can be generalized to other situations (population, settings, and time). - When a research project is having a practical value (certain measures could be taken in light of the research results), it must have external validity. - To increase chances of the research results to be generalized, the study should be done on representative samples and replicated in different situations. 6- cost and time of the study - In many cases, the cost of a research project only determines if the study is feasible. A researcher may have an excellent idea, but if its costs are prohibitive, the project is abandoned. - A carefully itemized list of all needed material, equipment, and other facilities is necessary before the beginning of the project. - If the cost is unaffordable, the researcher should consider whether it’s possible to achieve the study goal with some shavings of the expenses. - Time is also an important considerations in research planning. - Studies should be completed within the predetermined timeframe and researchers should allocate enough time for each research step as the pressure of deadlines may creates problems in producing adequate and accurate data. 7- Is approach appropriate to project? - A close look at every study is required to plan the best approach in data collecting and analysis. - A brilliant research idea may be hindered due to a poorly planned approach. - You may decide to utilize a research design that will cost a lot of money that you cannot afford. Then you will have to rework your plans to eliminate some of the expenses. - Researchers should bear in their minds that “the simplest research approach is always the best” 8- Is there any potential harm to subjects? Researchers must carefully evaluate whether their project may cause any physical or psychological harm to the subjects/respondents under study. The researcher should answer questions like: - Will respondents be frightened in any way? - Are they required to answer embarrassing questions? - Is exposure to research conditions will have harmful effect? Before the start of the research process, subjects should be given detailed explanation about the exact procedures that they will take part in. The researcher must gain their approval.  Review of literature - Researchers who are following the scientific method formula NEVER begin their research projects without consulting available literature to learn: - What has been done? - How it was done? - What results were found? - Experienced researchers consider the review of literature to be one of the most important steps in the research process as it allow them to learn from and add to the previously-done research. Before starting any project, researchers should ask these questions: - What type of studies/topics have been done in the area? - What has been found in those previous studies? - What research methods were used in them? - What do they miss/ what has not been investigated? - What suggestions other researchers made for further studies? - Which problems/limitations other researchers in the area had to deal with? - HOW the proposed study add to the knowledge of the research area? Answering these questions helps the researcher to well define his problem and clearly state his study purpose.  Stating a Hypothesis or research Question? - After identifying the research topic and reviewing the existing literature, the researcher must translate the research problem into certain hypotheses to be tested and questions to be answered. - A hypothesis is a formal statement suggesting a relationship between variables. This predicted relationship can be true or false according to the results of data analysis. - A research question is a formally stated question intended to provide indications about something. It’s not limited to investigating relationships between variables. - Research question are appropriate when the researcher is unsure about the nature of the problem under investigation. ( most suitable in pilot studies to gather preliminary information that can be used later to create hypotheses and in exploratory studies where new topics and phenomena are investigated).] - Again, the research questions suppose only general areas of investigations, whereas the hypotheses are testable statements regarding the relationships between the variables. - Researchers can develop their hypotheses relying on the information gathered in pilot studies or based on the results of previous studies which suggest probable relationships between variables. Data analysis and Interpretation - The time and effort required for data analysis and interpretation depend on the study’s purpose and the methodology used. - Analysis and interpretation may take from several days to several months, according to the scope and nature of your study. - In many private sector research studies involving only a single question, data analysis and interpretation may take a few minutes. - But in academic research projects, where different phenomena and concepts are studied through answering several questions or testing several hypotheses, the process is even longer. ◼ Every research study must be carefully planned and performed according to specific guidelines. ◼ When the analysis has been completed, the researcher must step back to consider what has been discovered. ◼ The researcher must ask two questions: are the results internally and externally valid? Are the results accurate? ◼ An externally valid study is the one whose results can be generalized to the whole population ◼ To assess internal validity one asks: does the study really investigate the proposed research question? ◼ Internal validity is the extent to which you can be confident that a cause-and-effect relationship established in a study cannot be explained by other factors. Internal validity ◼ Control over research condition is essential to rule out plausible but incorrect explanation of results. ◼ any variable that creates a possible but incorrect explanation of results is called an artifact. ◼ The presence of an artifact indicates the lack of internal validity; that is the study has failed to investigate its hypothesis. External validity ◼ External validity refers to how well the findings can be generalized across populations, setting and time. ◼ A study that lacks external validity cannot be generalized to other situations; it is only valid for the sample tested. ◼ Most procedures used to guard against external invalidity relate to sample selection. 1- use random sample, A random sample means that everyone within the guidelines of the project has an equal chance of being selected; using random sample rather than available sample allows researchers to gather information from a variety of subjects rather than those who share common attitudes, opinions and lifestyles. 2- use heterogeneous sample and replicate the study several times. Replicated research projects using heterogeneous sample allows researchers to test hypotheses and research questions and not to worry that the results will apply to only one type of subject. 3- select a sample that is representative of the group to which the results will be generalized.  Presenting Results - The format used to present results depends on the purpose of the study and its methodology. - Qualitative and Quantitative research designs require different formats in presenting data. - Also, the private sector research is different than the academic projects in regard to result reporting. Usually, academic research provides detailed explanation of the sampling, methodology and review of literature, whereas private research results tend to be reported in simpler terms. - However, all results must be presented in a clear and concise manner appropriate to both the research question and the individuals who will read the report. Replication: ◼ The results of any single study are only indications of what might exist. For others to be relatively certain of the results of any study, the research must be replicated or repeated. ◼ A research question or hypothesis must be investigated from many different perspectives before any significance can be attributed to the results. ◼ Research method or design must be altered to eliminate design specific results- results specific to the design used. ◼ Subjects with a variety of characteristics should be studied from many angles to eliminate sample specific results. ◼ Statistical analysis needs to be varied to eliminate method specific results.