Chapter 3: Financial Instruments, Financial Markets, and Financial Institutions PDF

CHAPTER 3 Financial Instruments, Financial Markets, and Financial Institutions 3-1  Learning Objectives Students will understand 1. Financial Instruments 2. Financial Markets 3. Financial Institutions 3-2  In...

CHAPTER 3 Financial Instruments, Financial Markets, and Financial Institutions 3-1  Learning Objectives Students will understand 1. Financial Instruments 2. Financial Markets 3. Financial Institutions 3-2  Introduction The international financial system exists to facilitate the design, sale, and exchange of a broad set of contracts with a very specific set of characteristics. We obtain financial resources through this system: – Directly and indirectly through markets and institutions. – Most transactions have pieces of both 3-3  Introduction Indirect Finance: An institution stands between lender and borrower. – We get a loan from a bank or finance company to buy a car. Direct Finance: Borrowers sell securities directly to lenders in the financial markets. – Direct finance provides financing for governments and corporations. Asset: Something of value that you own. Liability: Something you owe. 3-4 Figure 1.4 Flow of Funds 1-5 3-5 Private Placement Video 3-6 Figure 3.1: Funds Flowing through the Financial System 3-7  Introduction Financial development is linked to economic growth. The role of the financial system is to facilitate production, employment, and consumption. Resources are funneled through the system so resources flow to their most efficient uses. 3-8  Introduction We will survey the financial system in three steps: 1. Financial instruments or securities – Stocks, bonds, loans and insurance. – What is their role in our economy? 2. Financial Markets – New York Stock Exchange, Nasdaq. – Where investors trade financial instruments. 3. Financial institutions – What they are and what they do. 3-9  Financial Instruments Financial Instruments: The written legal obligation of one party to transfer something of value, usually money, to another party at some future date, under specified conditions. – The enforceability of the obligation is important. – Financial instruments obligate one party (person, company, or government) to transfer something to another party. – Financial instruments specify payment will be made at some future date. – Financial instruments specify conditions under which a payment will be made. 3-10  1. Uses of Financial Instruments Three functions: – Financial instruments act as a means of payment (like money). Employees take stock options as payment for working. – Financial instruments act as stores of value (like money). Financial instruments can be used to transfer purchasing power into the future. – Financial instruments allow for the transfer of risk (unlike money). Futures and insurance contracts allows one person to transfer risk to another. 3-11  The use of borrowing to finance part of an investment is called leverage. – Leverage played a key role in the financial crisis of 2007-2009. How did this happen? – The more leverage, the greater the risk that an adverse surprise will lead to bankruptcy. During the crisis, some financial firms leveraged more than 30 times their net worth. For those important firms, small declines in assets made these firms vulnerable. 3-12  How did this happen? (cont.) – When losses are experienced, firms try to deleverage to raise net worth. As many institutions deleveraged, prices fell, losses increased, and net worth fell. – This is called the “paradox of leverage”. Reinforces the leverage spiral Both spirals fed the cycle of falling prices and widespread deleveraging - the hallmark of the financial crisis of 2007-2009. 3-13  Characteristics of Financial Instruments These contracts are very complex. This complexity is costly, and people do not want to bear these costs. Standardization of financial instruments overcomes potential costs of complexity. – For example, most mortgages feature a standard application with standardized terms. Financial instruments also communicate information, summarizing certain details about the issuer. – Continuous monitoring of an issuer is costly and difficult. 3-14  Characteristics of Financial Instruments Mechanisms exist to reduce the cost of monitoring the behavior of counterparties. – A counterparty is the person or institution on the other side of the contract. The solution to the high cost of obtaining information is to standardize both the instrument and the information about the issuer. Financial instruments are designed to handle the problem of asymmetric information. – Borrowers have some information they don’t disclose to lenders. 3-15 Underlying Versus Derivative Instruments Two fundamental classes of financial instruments. Underlying instruments are used by savers/lenders to transfer resources directly to investors/borrowers. This improves the efficient allocation of resources. Examples: stocks and bonds. 3-16  A Primer for Valuing Financial Instruments We organize financial instruments by how they are used: Primarily used as stores of value 1. Bank loans – Borrower obtains resources from a lender to be repaid in the future. 2. Bonds – A form of a loan issued by a corporation or government. – Can be bought and sold in financial markets. 3-19  A Primer for Valuing Financial Instruments 3.Home mortgages – Home buyers usually need to borrow using the home as collateral for the loan. A specific asset the borrower pledges to protect the lender’s interests. 4.Stocks – The holder owns a small piece of the firm and entitled to part of its profits. – Firms sell stocks to raise money. – Primarily used as a stores of wealth. 3-20  A Primer for Valuing Financial Instruments 5.Asset-backed securities – Shares in the returns or payments arising from specific assets, such as home mortgages and student loans. Mortgage backed securities bundle a large number of mortgages together into a pool in which shares are sold. Securities backed by sub-prime mortgages played an important role in the financial crisis of 2007-2009. 3-21  The biggest risk we all face is becoming disabled and losing our earning capacity. – Insuring against this should be one of our highest priorities. – More likely than our house suffering a serious fire. It is important to assess to make sure you have enough insurance. Disability insurance is one way to transfer that risk to someone else. 3-22 Financial Instruments Used Primarily to Transfer Risk 1. Insurance contracts. – Primary purpose is to assure that payments will be made under particular, and often rare, circumstances. – Insurance Contracts 2. Futures contracts. – An agreement between two parties to exchange a fixed quantity of a commodity or an asset at a fixed price on a set future date. – A price is always specified. – This is a type of derivative instrument. – Future Contract 3-23 Financial Instruments Used Primarily to Transfer Risk 3. Options – Derivative instruments whose prices are based on the value of an underlying asset. – Give the holder the right, not obligation, to buy or sell a fixed quantity of the asset at a pre-determined price on either a specific date or at any time during a specified period. – Options 3-24 Financial Instruments Used Primarily to Transfer Risk 4. Swaps – Agreements to exchange two specific cash flows at certain times in the future. – Come in many varieties Reflect differences in maturity, payment frequency, and underlying cash flows – SWAPS 3-25  Financial Markets Financial markets are places where financial instruments are bought and sold. These markets are the economy’s central nervous system. These markets enable both firms and individuals to find financing for their activities. These markets promote economic efficiency: – They ensure resources are available to those who put them to their best use. – They keep transactions costs low. 3-26 The Role of Financial Markets 1. Market liquidity: – Ensure owners can buy and sell financial instruments cheaply. – Keeps transactions costs low. 2. Information: – Pool and communication information about issuers of financial instruments. 3. Risk sharing: – Provide individuals a place to buy and sell risk. 3-27  The Structure of Financial Markets 1. Distinguish between markets where new financial instruments are sold and where they are resold or traded: primary or secondary markets. 2. Categorize by the way they trade: centralized exchange or not. 3. Group based on the type of instrument they trade: as a store of value or to transfer risk. 4. FINANCIAL MARKET 3-28  Primary versus Secondary Markets A primary market is one in which a borrower obtains funds from a lender by selling newly issued securities. – Occurs out of the public views. – An investment bank determines the price, purchases the securities, and resells to clients. This is called underwriting and is usually very profitable. 3-29  Primary versus Secondary Markets Secondary financial markets are those where people can buy and sell existing securities. – Buying a share of IBM stock is not purchased from the company, but from another investor in a secondary market. – These are the prices we hear about in the news. 3-30  Financial Institutions & Markets: Financial Markets Financial markets provide a forum in which suppliers of funds and demanders of funds can transact business directly. The two key financial markets are the money market and the capital market. Transactions in short term marketable securities take place in the money market while transactions in long- term securities take place in the capital market. 1-313-31 Figure 1.1 Flow of Cash between Financial Markets and the Firm’s Operations 1) Cash raised by selling financial assets to investors. 2) Cash invested in the firm’s operations and used to purchase real assets. 3) Cash generated by the firm’s operations. 4) (a) Cash reinvested (b) Cash returned to investors. Access the text alternative for these images 3-32  The Money Market The money market is created by a financial relationship between suppliers and demanders of short-term funds. Most money market transactions are made in marketable securities which are short-term debt instruments, such as: U.S. Treasury bills issues by the federal government commercial paper issued by businesses negotiable certificates of deposit issued by financial institutions Investors generally consider marketable securities to be among the least risky investments available. 3-33  Malaysian Money Market NID or Negotiable Instrument of Deposit: In denomination more than RM100K. Repurchase Agreement or Repo: Issued by banks for duration from 1 day to 1 year. MTB or Malaysian Treasury Bills are short-term securities issued by the Government of Malaysia to raise short-term funds for Government's working capital. Bills are sold at discount through competitive auction, 1-343-34  The Money Market (cont.) The international equivalent of the domestic (U.S.) money market is the Eurocurrency market. The Eurocurrency market is a market for short-term bank deposits denominated in U.S. dollars or other marketable currencies. The Eurocurrency market has grown rapidly mainly because it is unregulated and because it meets the needs of international borrowers and lenders. 1-353-35  The Capital Market The capital market is a market that enables suppliers and demanders of long-term funds to make transactions. The key capital market securities are bonds (long-term debt) and both common and preferred stock (equity, or ownership). – Bonds are long-term debt instruments used by businesses and government to raise large sums of money, generally from a diverse group of lenders. – Common stock are units of ownership interest or equity in a corporation. – Preferred stock is a special form of ownership that has features of both a bond and common stock. 1-363-36  Malaysian Capital Market BNMN or Bank Negara Monetary Notes are securities issued by BN for purpose of managing liquidity in the conventional financial market MGS or Malaysian Government Securities are long-term bonds issued by the Government of Malaysia for financing developmental expenditure. It is being auctioned annually with the size between RM1 to RM4.5 billion depending on the government financial requirement. The duration of the terms are 3, 5, 7 or 10 years. CAPITAL & MONEY MARKETS 1-373-37  Broker Markets and Dealer Markets Broker markets are securities exchanges on which the two sides of a transaction, the buyer and seller, are brought together to trade securities. – Trading takes place on centralized trading floors. – Examples include: NYSE Euronext, Bursa Malaysia (previously KLSE) – BROKER 1-383-38  Broker Markets and Dealer Markets Broker markets are securities exchanges on which the two sides of a transaction, the buyer and seller, are brought together to trade securities. – Trading takes place on centralized trading floors. – Examples include: NYSE Euronext, American Stock Exchange Copyright © 2009 Pearson Prentice Hall. All rights reserved. 1-393-39  Broker Markets and Dealer Markets (cont.) Dealer markets are markets in which the buyer and seller are not brought together directly but instead have their orders executed by securities dealers that “make markets” in the given security. – A market where dealers are assigned for specific securities. The dealers create liquid markets by purchasing and selling against personal inventory. – The Nasdaq market is one example As compensation for executing orders, market makers make money on the spread (bid price – ask price). DEALER & BROKER 1-403-40  Matter of Fact NYSE Euronext is the World’s Largest Stock Exchange – According to the World Federation of Exchanges, NYSE Euronext is the largest stock market in the world, as measured by the total market value of securities listed on that market. – NYSE Euronext has listed securities worth more than $11.8 trillion in the U.S. and $2.9 trillion in Europe. – Next largest is the London Stock Exchange with securities valued at £1.7 trillion, which is equivalent to $2.8 trillion given the exchange rate between pounds and dollars prevailing at the end of 2009. 1-413-41 Centralized Exchanges, OTCs, and ECNs Historically there were: Centralized exchanges - buyers and sellers meet in a central, physical location. Over-the-counter markets (OTS’s) - decentralized markets where dealers stand ready to buy and sell securities electronically. More recently, there are electronic communication networks (ECN’s): Electronic system bringing buyers and sellers together without the use of a broker or dealer. OTC 3-47 Centralized Exchanges, OTCs, and ECNs Pace of structural change has accelerated dramatically 1. Ongoing technological advances in computing and communications Physical location of exchange less important 2. Increased globalization Encouraged more cross border mergers of exchanges. 3-48 Centralized Exchanges, OTCs, and ECNs Nasdaq and other ECNs have gained official status as regulated exchanges, but without a central location. The NYSE bought the largest ECN (Arca) and merged with Euronext creating a group that accounts for about 1/3 of world trading in equities – But today, much of the trading is done away from the NYSE floor. 3-49 Centralized Exchanges, OTCs, and ECNs Decentralized electronic has benefits – Customers can see their orders – Orders happen quickly – Can trade 24 hours a day – Low cost – Reduces operational risk, like when the NYSE was inaccessible for days after 9-11. 3-50 Centralized Exchanges, OTCs, and ECNs But it also has risks – The system has proven prone to errors such as the following: 1. December 8, 2005, a mistyped sell order cost a Japanese broker $300 million 2. In August 2012, a US broker’s trading algorithm triggered large price swings in many stocks, which cost the firm an estimated $440 million A rule based program for automatically executing hundreds or thousands of trades. 3-51 Centralized Exchanges, OTCs, and ECNs We also see that efforts to speed up electronic trading drain resources from other uses. High frequency traders (HFTs) may have an incentive to move closer to an exchange to cut down on transmission time by a few microseconds. Can purchase or sell thousands of stocks in seconds. Could diminish the willingness of market makers to provide liquidity. Others use resources to speed up transactions, with little gain in the broader economy 3-52 Centralized Exchanges, OTCs, and ECNs The creation of multiple electronic exchanges and ECNs has not resulted in a single, transparent US stock market. – This ideal market would make the entire schedule of bids and offers visible prior to trading. – The existence of multiple order books means a customer’s order might not be executed at the best possible price. 3-53 Table 3.4: The Structure of Financial Markets 3-54  Given a few large mistakes in electronic trading, many are calling for additional safeguards. – New software used by Knight Capital began sending errant buy and sell orders that cost them $440 million. – In May 2010, there was a “flash crash” linked to computerized trading. The Dow Jones Industrial Average plunged 1000 points in minutes. 3-55  The Securities and Exchange Commission has suggested that: – Automated programs need to be fully tested before used in live trading, and – Voluntary guidelines on automated trading should be mandatory. A “circuit breaker” could also be implemented so trading could be halted with the market seems excessively volatile. 3-56 Debt and Equity versus Derivative Markets Used to distinguish between markets where debt and equity are traded and those where derivative instruments are traded. Dept markets are markets for loans, mortgages, and bonds. Equity markets are the markets for stocks. Derivative markets are the markets where investors trade instruments like futures, options, and swaps. 3-57 Characteristics of a Well-Run Financial Market Essential characteristics of a well-run financial market: – Must be designed to keep transaction costs low. – Information the market pools and communicates must be accurate and widely available. – Borrowers promises to pay lenders much be credible. – Lenders must be able to enforce their right of repayment quickly and at low cost. 3-58  Characteristics of a Well-Run Financial Market Because of these criteria, the governments are an essential part of financial markets as they enforce the rules of the game. – Because of this, countries with better investor protections have bigger and deeper financial markets. 3-59  Financial Institutions Firms that provide access to the financial markets, both – to savers who wish to purchase financial instruments directly and – to borrowers who want to issue them. Also known as financial intermediaries. – Examples: banks, insurance companies, securities firms, and pension funds. Healthy financial institutions open the flow of resources, increasing the system’s efficiency. 3-63 The Role of Financial Institutions To reduce transaction costs by specializing in the issuance of standardized securities. To reduce the information costs of screening and monitoring borrowers. – They curb asymmetries, helping resources flow to most productive uses. To give savers ready access to their funds. 3-64  Financial intermediation and leverage in the US have shifted away from traditional banks and toward other financial institutions less subject to government regulations. – Brokerages, insurers, hedge funds, etc. These have become known as shadow banks. – Provide services that compete with banks but do not accept deposits. – Take on more risk than traditional banks and are less transparent. 3-65  The rise of highly leveraged shadow banks, combined with government relaxation of rules for traditional banks, permitted a rise of leverage in the financial system as a whole. – This made the financial system more vulnerable to shocks. Rapid growth in some financial instruments made it easier to conceal leverage and risk- taking. 3-66  The financial crisis of 2007-2009 transformed shadow banking. – The largest US brokerages failed, merged, or converted themselves into traditional banks to gain access to funding. The crisis has encouraged the government to scrutinize any financial institution that could, by risk taking, pose a threat to the financial system. 3-67  Financial Institutions & Markets: Financial Institutions Financial institutions are intermediaries that channel the savings of individuals, businesses, and governments into loans or investments. The key suppliers and demanders of funds are individuals, businesses, and governments. In general, individuals are net suppliers of funds, while businesses and governments are net demanders of funds. FINANCIAL INSTITUTIONS 1-683-68  2.1 Financial Institutions (2 of 2) Commercial Banks, Investment Banks, and the Shadow Banking System – Commercial Banks Institutions that provide savers with a secure place to invest their funds offer loans to individual and business borrowers – Investment Banks Assist companies in raising capital advise firms on major transactions such as mergers or financial restructurings and engage in trading and market making activities – Shadow Banking System A group of institutions that engage in lending activities, much like traditional banks, but that do not accept deposits and therefore are not subject to the same regulations as traditional banks 3-69  Matter of Fact Consolidation in the U.S. Banking Industry The U.S. banking industry has been going through a long period of consolidation. According to the Federal Deposit Insurance Corporation (FDIC), the number of commercial banks in the United States declined from 14,400 in early 1984 to 4,964 by October 2017, a decline of more than 65%. The decline is concentrated among small community banks, which larger institutions have been acquiring at a rapid pace. 3-70 The Structure of the Financial Industry We can divide intermediaries into two broad categories: – Depository institutions, Take deposits and make loans What most people think of as banks – Non-depository institutions. Include insurance companies, securities firms, mutual fund companies, hedge funds, private equity or venture capital firms, finance compnaies, and pension funds. 3-71 The Structure of the Financial Industry 1. Depository institutions take deposits and make loans. 2. Insurance companies accept premiums, which they invest, in return for promising compensation to policy holders under certain events. 3. Pension funds invest individual and company contributions in stocks, bonds, and real estate in order to provide payments to retired workers. 3-72 The Structure of the Financial Industry 4. Securities firms include brokers, investment banks, underwriters, mutual fund companies private equity firms, and venture capital firms. – Brokers and investment banks issue stocks and bonds to corporate customers, trade them, and advise customers. – Mutual-fund companies pool the resources of individuals and companies and invest them in portfolios - passive investing. – Hedge funds do the same for small groups of wealthy investors. 3-73 The Structure of the Financial Industry 4. Cont. – Private equity and venture capital firms also serve wealthy investors by acquiring controlling stakes in a few firms and manage them actively. 5. Finance companies raise funds directly in the financial markets in order to make loans to individuals and firms. – Finance companies tend to specialize in particular types of loans, such as mortgage, automobile, or business equipment. 3-74  The Structure of the Financial Industry 6. Government-sponsored enterprises (GSEs) are federal credit agencies that provide loans directly for farmers and home mortgagors. – Guarantee programs that insure loans made by private lenders. – Provides retirement income and medical care through Social Security and Medicare. 3-75 Figure 3.2: Flow of Funds through Financial Institutions 3-76  Most people need to borrow to buy a house. Mortgage payment will be your biggest monthly expense so shop around. Many offers are from mortgage brokers - firms that have access to pools of funds earmarked for use as mortgages. Who offers your mortgage is not important - get the best rate you can. 3-77