Inclusion and Identity - Chapter 2 PDF

I'M SPONGE ROB, AND I'LL BE SHARING WITH YOU MY BEAUTIFUL IDEAS. INCLUSION AND IDENTITY INCLUSION AND IDENTITY GROUPS TRANSFORM THE ME INTO THE WE. EVEN THOUGH EACH GROUP MEMBER IS CAPABLE OF SURVIVING INDEPENDENTLY OF THE GROUP, THE NEED TO BELONG IS USUALLY STRONGER...

I'M SPONGE ROB, AND I'LL BE SHARING WITH YOU MY BEAUTIFUL IDEAS. INCLUSION AND IDENTITY INCLUSION AND IDENTITY GROUPS TRANSFORM THE ME INTO THE WE. EVEN THOUGH EACH GROUP MEMBER IS CAPABLE OF SURVIVING INDEPENDENTLY OF THE GROUP, THE NEED TO BELONG IS USUALLY STRONGER THAN THE DESIRE TO REMAIN INDEPENDENT OF OTHERS’ INFLUENCES.  FROM ISOLATION TO INCLUSION Some species of animals are solitary. The cheetah, giant panda, orangutan, and opossum remain apart from other members of their species and congregate in some cases only to mate or rear offspring. Other animals, such as chimps, hyena, deer, and mice, are social creatures, for they usually forage, feed, sleep, and travel in small groups.  THE NEED TO Social BELONG psychologists Roy Baumeister and Mark Leary (1995, p. 497) argued that humans have a need to belong: “a pervasive drive to form and maintain at least a minimum quantity of lasting, positive, and impactful interpersonal relationships.” They likened the need to belong to other basic needs, such as hunger or thirst. SOLITUDE AND SOCIAL ISOLATION Aristotle famously suggested that “Man is by nature a social animal; and an unsocial person who is unsocial naturally and not accidentally is either unsatisfactory or superhuman.” SOLITUDE AND SOCIAL ISOLATION Henry David Thoreau disagreed with Aristotle, and, to prove his point, spent two years relatively secluded at Walden Pond. He deliberately kept his social contacts to a minimum, explaining: Society is commonly too cheap. We meet at very short intervals, not having had time to acquire any new value for each other. We meet at three meals a day and give each other a taste of that old musty cheese that we are. Certainly less frequency would suffice for all important and hearty communication. (Thoreau, 1962, p. 206) Prolonged social isolation has been identified as a risk factor for the onset of a number of psychological disorders, including depression, paranoia, and the disordered thought characteristic of schizophrenia (de Sousa et al., 2015).  Social and Emotional Loneliness Although group memberships are not often considered as essential an interpersonal relationship as friendships and love relationships, the relationships that groups create and sustain can become so intimate and involving that they serve as a buffer against feelings of isolation and loneliness. Loneliness is not the same as being alone, for in some situations, people are not troubled by isolation or a relative paucity of relations with others. Loneliness, instead, is an aversive psychological reaction to a perceived lack of personal or social relations.  EMOTIONAL LONELINESS - occurs when the problem is a lack of a long-term, meaningful, intimate relationship with another person; this type of loneliness might be triggered by divorce, a breakup with a lover, or repeated romantic failures.  SOCIAL LONELINESS -occurs when people feel cut off from their network of friends, acquaintances, and group members. People who have moved to a new city, children who are rejected by their peers, and new employees of large companies often experience social loneliness, because they are no longer embedded in a network of friends and acquaintances (Green et al., 2001). Some groups alleviate loneliness by fostering both intimate and social relations (Shaver & Buhrmester, 1983). People who belonged to groups (e.g., service organizations, religious or church organizations, business or professional organizations, and social clubs) were healthier and happier than individuals who did not (Harlow & Cantor, 1996)—and these effects were stronger still when people contributed their time to several organizations rather than just one (Pilliavin & Siegl, 2007). In consequence, groups that create connections among their members, such as amateur athletic teams, social clubs, or work groups, will reduce members’ feelings of social loneliness, but only more intimate, involving types of groups— families, romantic couples, or very close friendship cliques—will meet members’ social and emotional needs (Stroebe et al., 1996). Degrees of Separation In social network analysis, the number of steps or relationships needed to link one person in the network to another specific person in the network. Loneliness also depended on degrees of separation. In a social network, members are interconnected, but often through intermediate members.  INCLUSION AND EXCLUSION Ostracism - Excluding one or more individuals from a group by reducing or eliminating contact with the person, usually by ignoring, shunning, or explicitly banishing them. The word ostracism dates to the Greeks, who voted to punish members of the community with banishment by inscribing their names on potshards called ostraca (Williams, 2007) People’s need to belong is slaked when a group accepts them, but they are the most satisfied when a group actively seeks them out. In contrast, people respond negatively when a group ignores or avoids them, and this negative reaction is exacerbated if the group ostracizes, abandons, or banishes them (Molden et al., 2009). Individuals who feel out of the loop experience more negative moods, they feel less competent, and they do not feel as close interpersonally to the other group members. These consequences are more pronounced if they feel that the group has deliberately turned against them rather than mistakenly overlooked them (Jones & Kelly, 2013).  REACTIONS TO EXCLUSION — Most people respond very negatively to ostracism and exclusion. When asked to describe their feelings, excluded people report feeling frustrated, anxious, nervous, and lonely, whereas those who are included in the group feel relaxed, friendly, and comfortable (Williams & Nida, 2017).  REACTIONS TO EXCLUSION — Williams’s (2007, 2009) temporal need- threat model of ostracism, summarized in Figure 3.2, calls this initial response to ostracism the reflexive stage. It is characterized by a flood of negative feelings— pain, disappointment, and distress—that all serve to signal that something is wrong. This period of negative emotions and confusion is followed by the deliberative, reflective stage. Resignation stage: alienation helplessness loss of self-worth depression  > FIGHT-OR-FLIGHT RESPONSE fight-or-flight response is a common reaction of people when they face stressful, threatening circumstances, and suggests it is motivated by a desire to gain a sense of control in a deleterious situation.  > FIGHT-OR-FLIGHT RESPONSE A physiological and psychological response to stressful events characterized by the activation of the sympathetic nervous system (increased heart rate, pupil dilation) that readies the individual to counter the threat (fight) or to escape the threat (flight).  > FIGHT-OR-FLIGHT RESPONSE Some people, facing exclusion, fight their way back into the group (a fight response), or they avoid further rejection by seeking membership elsewhere (a flight response). > TEND-AND-BEFRIEND RESPONSE A physiological, psychological, and interpersonal response to stressful events characterized by increased nurturing, protective and supportive behaviors (tending), and initiating and strengthening relationships with other people (befriending). Those who have recently been excluded or who feel lonely are far more attentive to and more likely to remember accurately the details of a group’s interaction: They are searching for social cues that will help them find a way to gain acceptance in the group(Pickett & Hess, 2017).  They become more socially perceptive, for they are better able to tell the difference between a false, forced smile and a genuine (Duchenne) smile (Bernstein et al., 2008), but they do tend to focus their attention on people who are responding positively rather than negatively to them (DeWall, Maner, & Rouby, 2009).  CYBEROSTRA CISM Excluding one or more individuals from a technologically mediated group interaction, such as a computer-based discussion group, by reducing or eliminating communication with the person.  EXCLUSION AND AGGRESSION The need to belong is a powerful force in human behavior, so much so that individuals can respond violently when that need is thwarted (Leary et al., 2003).  EXCLUSION AND AGGRESSION Some individuals experience sadness when excluded; they respond to exclusion passively. But others are angered when excluded, and these individuals are the ones who are more likely to engage in antisocial behavior, including aggression. They may interpret neutral or even accepting actions as negative, with the result that they sometimes feel as if the entire group has ostracized them when they have been rejected by only one or two of the members (DeWall, Enjaian, & Bell, 2017).  INCLUSION AND HUMAN NATURE  THE HERD INSTINCT suggests that humans have an inherent tendency to gather with others, psychological and social tendencies are shaped by evolutionary processes to increase adaptive actions and neurological mechanisms.  THE HERD INSTINCT Humans' capacity for introspection, understanding emotions, interpreting vocal cues, and considering future events are believed to be adaptations shaped by natural selection.  THE HERD INSTINCT Living in groups has both costs and benefits for early humans, such as increased vulnerability to predators and diseases but also advantages in hunting, foraging, protection, and childcare.  SOCIOMETER THEORY A conceptual analysis of self-evaluation processes that theorizes self-esteem functions to psychologically monitor of one’s degree of inclusion and exclusion in social groups (proposed by Mark Leary). THE BIOLOGY OF OSTRACISM AND INCLUSION The intensely negative reaction most people experience when they feel excluded has a biological basis. THE BIOLOGY OF OSTRACISM AND INCLUSION Inclusion triggers a different set of physiological events: lowered heart rate and blood pressure and an increase in levels of the neuropeptide and hormone oxytocin, which is associated with positive forms of social behavior, including trust and social support.  FROM INDIVIDUALIS M TO COLLECTIVIS Across individuals, societies, and eras, humans consistently prefer to be on the inside of groups rather than the outside. But a social life makes demands that a life of solitude does not. CREATING COOPERATION Living in groups requires concession and compromise, for the needs and interests of a group do not always and completely match the needs and interests of each one of its members.  INDIVIDUALI A SM tradition, ideology, or personal outlook that emphasizes the primacy of the individual and his or her rights, independence, and relationships with other individuals COLLECTIVISM A tradition, ideology, or personal orientation that emphasizes the primacy of the group or community rather than each individual person. Triandis (2009) emphasizes four core elements in his theory of individualism–collectivism: the significance of social relations, acceptance of social obligations, shared goals, changes in group members’ self- conceptions SOCIAL RELATIONS The relationships linking members to one another and their group are not only stronger and more valued by collectivists but they are also more likely to be communal rather than exchange-based.  EXCHANGE RELATIONSHIPS A reciprocal interdependency that emphasizes the trading of gratifying experiences and rewards among members. COMMUNAL RELATIONSHIP A reciprocal interdependency that emphasizes meeting the needs and interests of others rather than maximizing one’s own personal outcomes. NORM OF RECIPROCITY A social standard that enjoins individuals to pay back in kind what they receive from others.  SOCIAL OBLIGATIONS  GROUP CULTURE The distinct ways that members of a group represent their experiences, including consensually accepted knowledge, beliefs, rituals, customs, rules, language, norms, and practices. A collectivistic group “binds and mutually obligates” each member (Oyserman et al., 2002,p. 5), and so members have no right to create disagreement or to disrupt convened group proceedings.Their operating principle is “The tall nail gets pounded down.” Members of individualistic groups, in contrast, do not display as high a degree of uniformity in their behavior or even respect for the group’s traditions and leadership, for members are expected to act on the basis of their attitudes, beliefs, and preferences.  SOCIAL GOALS A collectivist orientation requires a willingness to cooperate with others, and a degree of optimism that these others are also committed more to the common good than to their own personal outcomes. EQUITY NORM A social standard that encourages distributing rewards and resources to members in proportion to their inputs. EQUALITY NORM A social standard that encourages distributing rewards and resources equally among all members.  THE SOCIAL SELF PERSONAL IDENTITY An individual’s perception of those aspects of his or her self-concept that derive from individualistic, personal qualities such as traits, beliefs, and skills. SOCIAL IDENTITY (OR COLLECTIVE SELF) An individual’s perception of those aspects of his or her self-concept that derive from his or her relationships with other people, groups, and society.  INDIVIDUALISTS (OR INDEPENDENTS, OR IDIOCENTRICS) speak of their independence, their personal goals. Individuals predisposed to put their own personal interests and motivations above the group’s interests and goals.  COLLECTIVISTS (OR INTERDEPENDENTS OR ALLOCENTRICS) Individuals predisposed to put the group’s interests and goals above their personal interests and motivations, with other people, and their satisfaction with their work depends on the quality of their relationships with their coworkers (Triandis, 2009) CULTURAL DIFFERENCES The view of people as independent, autonomous creatures may be peculiar to Western society’s individualistic learning. (e.g., Hofstede, 1980; Oyserman et al., 2002) Triandis believes that about 60% of the people in collectivistic cultures are interdependent (allocentrics), just as about 60% of the people in individualistic cultures are independent (idiocentric) types.  MAINTAINING OPTIMAL DISTINCTIVENESS Collectivists are often contrasted with individualists, but these two orientations are continuous dimensions of personality that vary in their influence across time and situations. OPTIMAL DISTINCTIVENESS THEORY Proposed by social psychologist Marilynn Brewer (2012), argues that individuals strive to maintain a balance at least three basic fundamental needs  The need to be assimilated by the group The need to be connected to friends and loved ones And the need for autonomy and differentiation.  FROM PERSONAL IDENTITY TO SOCIAL IDENTITY  SOCIAL IDENTITY THEORY SOCIAL IDENTITY THEORY: The Basics Originally developed by Social psychologists Henri Tajfel, John Turner, and their colleagues. in an attempt to understand the causes of conflict between people who belonged to different groups.  SOCIAL IDENTITY THEORY: A theoretical analysis of group processes and intergroup relations that assumes groups influence their members’ self-concepts and self-esteem, particularly when individuals categorize themselves as group members and identify with the group MINIMAL INTERGROUP SITUATION Is a gatherings of two groups of volunteers with no history, no future together, and no real connection to one another. MINIMAL INTERGROUP SITUATION A research procedure used in studies of intergroup conflict that involves creat- ing temporary groups of anonymous, unrelated people (developed by Henri Tajfel and John Turner). Two cognitive processes: social categorization and identification —combine to transform a group membership into an identity.  SOCIAL The CATEGORIZATION processes that generate a person’s social identity begin with social categorization (Turner, 1991, 1999). Perceivers, to make sense of and understand other people, quickly and automatically classify those they encounter into groups based on age, race, nationality, and other categories.  SOCIAL CATEGORIZATION The perceptual classification of people, including the self, into categories.  STEREOTYPES (OR PROTOTYPES) They describe the typical characteristics of people in various social groups and, more generally, how one group dif- fers from another (the metacontrast principle).  STEREOTYPES (OR PROTOTYPES) A socially shared set of cognitive generalizations (e.g., beliefs and expectations) about the qualities and characteristics of the typical member of a particular group or social category.  SELF-STEREOTYPING (OR AUTOSTEREOTYPING) Accepting socially shared generalizations about the prototypical characteristics attributed to members of one’s group as accurate descriptions of oneself.  IDENTIFICATION Most people belong to many groups and categories, but many of these memberships have no influence on their social identities.  IDENTIFICATION As social psychologist Michael Hogg (2005, p. 136) explains: They identify themselves in the same way and have the same definition of who they are, what attributes they have, and how they relate to and differ from specific outgroups or from people who are simply not ingroup members.Group membership is a matter of collective self- construal—we, us, and them. SOCIAL IDENTIFICATION Accepting the group as an extension of the self and therefore basing one’s self- definition on the group’s qualities and characteristics.  SELF AND IDENTITY A person’s identification with a group can become so pronounced that across situations they think of themselves as group members first and individuals second. More typically, however, the self will shift from me to we if something in the situation increases the salience of one’s membership.  SELF AND IDENTITY A person’s identification with a group can become so pronounced that across situations they think of themselves as group members first and individuals second. More typically, however, the self will shift from me to we if something in the situation increases the salience of one’s membership. MOTIVATION AND SOCIAL IDENTITY EVALUATING THE SELF Hogg (2005) suggests that at least two basic motives influence the way social categorization and identification processes combine to shape one’s sense of self.  individuals are motivated to think well of themselves, and, since their groups comprise a significant portion of their selves, they maintain their self-worth by thinking well of their groups.  self-understanding is a core motive for most people and that groups offer people a means of understanding themselves. When individuals join groups, their self-concept becomes connected to that group, and the value of that group influences their feelings of personal worth. Social psychologist Jennifer Crocker and her colleagues examined the relationship between people’s self- esteem and their feelings about the groups to which they belonged by developing a measure of collective self-esteem. COLLECTIVE SELF- ESTEEM Individuals’ overall assessment of that portion of their self-concept that is based on their relationships with others and membership in social groups. BASKING IN REFLECTED GLORY (BIRGING) Seeking direct or indirect association with prestigious or successful groups or individuals. CUTTING OFF REFLECTED FAILURE (CORFING) Distancing oneself from a group that performs poorly.  PROTECTING THE COLLECTIVE SELF People protect their collective self-esteem just as they protect their personal self-esteem. They deny that their group possesses negative qualities. They consider their group to be superior to alternative groups. They give their group credit for its successes, but blame outside influences when their group fails.  INGROUP–OUTGROUP BIAS The tendency to view the ingroup, its members, and its products more positivelythan other groups, their members, and their products. Ingroup favoritism is more common than the outgroup rejection.  INGROUP: the group which one belongs to OUTGROU P: the group which one does not belong to  SOCIAL CREATIVITY Restricting comparisons between the ingroup and other groups to tasks and outcomes when the ingroup is more successful than other groups and avoiding areas in which other groups surpass the ingroup.  STEREOTYPE VERIFICATION AND THREAT In social identity theory, stereotypes serve to create identity, but they can also constrain identity. When people are proud members of their groups, they readily admit that they are stereotypical and will also take steps to confirm these stereotypes when they interact with people who are not part of their group. They prefer to interact with people who confirm their stereotype about their group, rather than people who hold beliefs that contradict these assumptions (Chen, Chen, & Shaw, 2004; Gómez et al., 2009). STEREOTYPE THREAT The anxiety-provoking belief that others’ perceptions and evaluations will be influenced by their negative stereotypes about one’s group that can, in some cases, interfere with one’s ability to perform up to one’s capabilities.  INDIVIDUAL MOBILITY Reducing one’s connection to a group in order to minimize the threat to individualself-esteem. THANK YOU!🌸 MEMBERS: ADARO, APRIL JOY BALDO, ALTHEA MARIE DE LA FLOR, PRINCESS ANGELIE PALANOG, KEN BRIAN SERVANO, ANTHEA INTRODUC TION Elaborate on what you want to discuss.