Chapter 6 Hardware Components for Automation and Process Control PDF

Chapter 6 Hardware Components for Automation and Process Control  Chapter 6: Hardware Components Sections: 1. Sensors 2. Actuators 3. Analog-to-Digital Conversion 4. Digital-to-Analog Conversion  Computer-Process Interface § To implement process control, the computer must...

Chapter 6 Hardware Components for Automation and Process Control  Chapter 6: Hardware Components Sections: 1. Sensors 2. Actuators 3. Analog-to-Digital Conversion 4. Digital-to-Analog Conversion  Computer-Process Interface § To implement process control, the computer must collect data from and transmit signals to the production process § Components required to implement the interface: 1. Sensors to measure continuous and discrete process variables 2. Actuators to drive continuous and discrete process parameters 3. Devices for ADC and DAC 4. I/O devices for discrete data Computer Process Control System Transformation Process Continuous and Discrete Continuous and Discrete Parameters Variables Actuators Sensors DAC ADC Computer Controller Output Devices Input Devices  Sec 6.1: Sensors § A sensor is a transducer that converts a physical stimulus from one form into a more useful form to measure the stimulus  Sec 6.1: Sensors § Sensors can be classified into two basic categories: 1. Analog (continuous) § Examples: thermocouple, strain gauges, potentiometers. 2. Discrete § Binary (on/off) § Examples: Limit switch, photoelectric switches. § Digital (e.g., pulse counter) § Examples: photoelectric array, optical encoder.  Common sensores, Table 6.2 § Accelerometer: Analog device used to measure vibration and shock.  Common sensores, Table 6.2 § Ammeter: Analog device that measures the strength of electric current  Common sensores, Table 6.2 § Bimetallic switch: Binary switch that uses bimetallic coil to open and close electrical contact as a result of temperature change. Consists of two metal strips of different thermal expansion coefficients bonded together.  Common sensores, Table 6.2 § Bimetallic thermometer: Analog temperature measuring device consisting of bimetallic coil that changes shape in response to temperature change.  Common sensores, Table 6.2 § Dynamometer: Analog device used to measure force, power, or torque. § Float transducer: Float attached to lever arm. Pivoting movement of lever arm can be used to measure liquid level in vessel or to activate contact switch.  Common sensores, Table 6.2 § Fluid flow sensor: Analog measurement of liquid flow rate. § Fluid flow switch: Binary switch activated by increase in fluid pressure.  Common sensores, Table 6.2 § Linear variable differential transformer: Analog position sensor consisting of primary coil opposite two secondary coils separated by a magnetic core. When primary coil is energized, induced voltage in secondary coils is function of core position.  Common sensores, Table 6.2 § Limit switch (mechanical): Binary contact sensor in which lever arm or pushbutton closes or opens an electrical contact.  Common sensores, Table 6.2 § Manometer: Analog device used to measure pressure of gas or liquid. § Ohmmeter: Analog device that measures electrical resistance. § Optical encoder: Digital device used to measure position and/or speed, consisting of a slotted disk separating a light source from a photocell.  Common sensores, Table 6.2 § Photoelectric sensory array: Digital sensor consisting of linear series of photoelectric switches. Array is designed to indicate height or size of objects. § Photoelectric switch: Binary noncontact sensor (switch) consisting of emitter (light source) and receiver (photocell) triggered by interruption of light beam. § Photometer: Analog sensor that measures illumination and light intensity.  Common sensores, Table 6.2 § Piezoelectric transducer: Analog device based on piezoelectric effect of certain materials in which an electric charge is produced when the material is deformed. Can be used to measure force, pressure, and acceleration. § Potentiometer: Analog position sensor consisting of resistor and contact slider. Position of slider on resistor determines measured resistance.  Common sensores, Table 6.2 § Proximity switch: Binary noncontact sensor is triggered when nearby object induces changes in electromagnetic field. § Radiation pyrometer: Analog temperature-measuring device that senses electromagnetic radiation. § Resistance-temperature detector: Analog temperature- measuring device based on increase in electrical resistance of a metallic material as temperature increases.  Common sensores, Table 6.2 § Strain gauge: Widely used analog sensor to measure force, torque, or pressure. § Tachometer: Analog device consisting of DC generator that produces an electrical voltage proportional to rotational speed. § Tactile sensor: Measuring device that indicates physical contact between two objects.  Common sensores, Table 6.2 § Thermistor: Analog temperature-measuring device based on change in electrical resistance of a semiconductor material as temperature increased. § Thermocouple: Analog temperature-measuring device based on thermoelectric effect. § Ultrasonic range sensor: Used to measure distance or simply to indicate presence of object.  Input/output relation of Sensors where S = output signal; s = stimulus; and f(s) = functional relationship For binary sensors: S = 1 if s > 0 and S = 0 if s < 0. The ideal functional form for an analogue measuring device is a simple proportional relationship, such as: where C = output value at a stimulus value of zero and m = constant of proportionality (sensitivity)  Example § The output voltage of a particular thermocouple sensor is registered to be 42.3 mV at temperature 105°C. It had previously been set to emit a zero voltage at 0°C. Determine § (1) the transfer function of the thermocouple, and § (2) the temperature corresponding to a voltage output of 15.8 mV. Solution (1) 42.3 mV = 0 + m(105°C) = m(105°C) or m = 0.4028571429 S = 0.4 (s) (2) 15.8 mV = 0.4 (s) 15.8 / 0.4 = s s = 39.22°C  Sec 6.2: Actuators Actuators: are hardware devices that convert a controller command signal into a change in a physical parameter. § The change is usually mechanical (e.g., position or velocity). § An actuator is also a transducer because it changes one type of physical quantity into some alternative form (e.g. electric current to rotational speed of electric motor).  Types of Actuators 1. Electrical actuators § Electric motors (linear or rotational) § DC servomotors § AC motors § Stepper motors § Solenoids § Relay 2. Hydraulic actuators § Use hydraulic fluid as the driving force 3. Pneumatic actuators § Use compressed air as the driving force Electric motors  DC motors § DC motors are widely used: § Convenience of using direct current. § E.g. motors in automobiles. § Linear Torque-Speed relationship. § One special type of DC motors is Servomotors. § A feedback back loop is used to control speed.  AC motors § Most used in industry. § Advantages: § Higher power supply § Ease of maintenance § Two types: § Induction motor § Synchronous motor  Stepper Motors § Provides rotation in the form of discrete angular displacement (step angles). § Each step angle is actuated by a discrete electrical pulse. § Are used in open loop control systems.  Stepper Motors Step angle is given by: : where ns is the number of steps for the stepper motor (integer) Total angle through which the motor rotates (Am) is given by: where np = number of pulses received by the motor. Angular velocity is given by: where fp = pulse frequency Speed of rotation is given by:  Example § A stepper motor has a step angle = 3.6°. § (1) How many pulses are required for the motor to rotate through ten complete revolutions? § (2) What pulse frequency is required for the motor to rotate at a speed of 100 rpm (rev/min)? Solution 3.6° = 360 / ns; 3.6° (ns) = 360; ns = 360 / 3.6 = 100 step angles (1) Ten complete revolutions: 10(360°) = 3600° = Am Therefore np = 3600 / 3.6 = 1000 pulses (2) Where N = 100 rev/min: 100 = 60 fp / 100 10,000 = 60 fp fp = 10,000 / 60 = 166.667 = 167 Hz Stepper motor and Servomotor  Hydraulic and Pneumatic Actuators § Powered by pressurized fluid. § Oil for hydraulic systems § Compressed air for pneumatic systems  Hydraulic and Pneumatic Actuators System Characteristic Hydraulic System Pneumatic System Fluid Oil Compressed Air Compressibility Incompressible Compressible Pressure level 20 MPa 0.7 MPa Applied force High Low Actuation speed Low High Speed control Accurate speed control Difficult to control speed Fluid leaks Safety hazard No problem Cost High Low  Other Actuators § Solenoids: a movable plunger inside a stationary wire coil. § Used to open and close valves in fluid flow systems, e.g., chemical processing equipment.  Other Actuators § Electromechanical relays: is an on-off electrical switch. § Operated by low current levels. Hence, safer to use.  Analog-to-Digital Conversion § Thee steps: 1. Sampling – converts the continuous signal into a series of discrete analog signals at periodic intervals 2. Quantization – each discrete analog is converted into one of a finite number of (previously defined) discrete amplitude levels 3. Encoding – discrete amplitude levels are converted into digital code Variable Analogue Signal Discrete 1001 1101 0101 Variables Time  Features of an ADC § Sampling rate – rate at which continuous analog signal is polled e.g. 1000 samples/sec § Resolution – depends on number of quantization levels § Conversion time – how long it takes to convert the sampled signal to digital code § Conversion method – means by which analog signal is encoded into digital equivalent  Digital-to-Analog Conversion § Convert digital values into continuous analogue signal § Two steps: Decoding, and Data Holding § Decoding: convert the digital output into a series of analog (discrete) values. § Data Holding: fit an envelop for the discrete analog values.