Growth and Conflict (PDF)

1189-1817 Growth and Conflict ~ The Big Ideas ~ SECTION 1: The New RepubHmh:, ¡,offifü:aii, and s@da! beiiefs can lead îo mlivisi@n within a mifü:m. Unable to reach a compromise in the controversy over slavery, the North and South resorted to civil war. $ECTION 5: R.œ~@~drudâow Sodai and ecenemtc crises lead to new roles for goven·S\lment Republicans introduced many reforms during Reconstruction but some of these failed, creating new hardships for newly freed African Americans..,-- ~ The American Vision: Modern Times Videll"J The Chapter 2 video, "The Battle of ~ New Orleans," focuses on this important event of the War of 1812. · d6üü h165 â608 [ill@ Congress bans Missouri Compromise Democrats hold their Washington international slave trade , proposed by Henry Clay first presidential elected president nominating convention 1790 ' '~ 9~l~-~~ 1820 , L1,12 L 1142 Polish rebellion Napoleon's Mexico and Male voting ° China opened suppressed invasion and Greece declare rights expanded by force to by Russians retreat from Russia independence in England foreign trade Charge by Don Troiani, depicts the advance of the English Pennsylvania Cavalry during the Battle of Chancellorsville. if;¡;,,INàltl¡ ·~ 1850 Compromise of d6· 9 Lee surrenders to 1850 adopted in Grant at Appomattox 1877 1846 \ an attempt to d6· : Courthouse; John Compromise of 1877 United States begins ease sectional Fort Sumter bombarded Wilkes Booth ends Reconstruction war with Mexico tensions by Confederate forces; assassinates Lincoln efforts [ the Civil War begins ÏfPôtk ¡,.r~ :.,_' _,,_._,_' 18f's+í --i;;;;;¡¡;;;..-&1~...-~.,.....,~l....... - -- J; « ree: p- Ü. Chapter Overview Visit the American Vision: Modern Times Web site at @¥.E1g)_g_i1coe.com and click on Chapter Ove,víews- 1848 :x__ 1868 Chopter 2 to preview chapter Karl Marx and Frederich Darwin's Origin of Meiji Restoration information. Engels's The Communist Species published begins Japanese Manifesto published modernization W hen authors write books, they try to anticipate the questions their readers are likely to ask and to provide the information that answers those questions. One way to make sure you understand what you are reading is to ask questions of the text. This means that you think about questions you would like answered. By formulating questions in your mind as you read, you increase your ability to understand and remember. An easy way to practice asking questions during reading is to turn the headings into questions. For example, a heading that reads "John Brown's Raid" can be turned into "What was John Brown's raid?" When you turn the heading into a question, you can expect that it will be answered in the passage. You can ask more than one question. For instance, another good question would be "Why was John Brown's raid important?" Read the following passage and note how the questions from above were answered. NY«§ Î P- / - ü«@- P x @üxÎ Â« :Î }:Â- xÎ :Î _"YY- }Â:«Î p «Y Y- ; - üü :«Î p x x:Î _Â_üx/ - ! «üP- Y_t A« «; Âx:Î § - x@«Î _p ! - xÎ P x; «"Âd6 «üü «§ - Y_ _- :?- P Â!- - P- Yxü xY_- Î xü xÂb xY@- Y_ v - YY>p C:Y :Î :x $Î «§ R - _ÂC:Y :Î :xo «Î Â! - Î : !Â « y }Â«; - Y d· p d695t O }«Î Â:Î - Î Â« Mt) t H xY:Î - _p }«ì ì xÎ P- P ; > G«ü«Î - ü W«; - YÂwt z - - pY"_! - P Y«ì ( Mw) Agy F gF u R x_! :Î Â«Î p BtGtp Â« b xY@- Y_ v- YY>t y "ÂÎ "ì ; - Y- Pp As you read the passage, be NY«§ Î _"YY - Î P- Y- Pp xÎ P x C:Y :Î :x }«"YÂÂY:- P xÎ P sure to take note of the sup- }«Î / :}Â- P ! :ì xÎ P _- Î Â- Î }- P ! :ì Â« P- xÂ! t porting details the author H xÎ > F «YÂ!- YÎ- Y_ / :- § - P NY«§Î x_ x ì xYÂ >Y:Î x provides. For example, notice Î «; ü- }x"_- t v«Yì «_Â) «"Â! - YÎ- Y_pNY«§Î c_ Yx:P « - Y- P the explanation about xüü Â! - @Y«« Â! - > Î - - P- P Â!xÂF «YÂ ! - YÎ- Y_ § - Y- x}Â:/ - ü> Brown's conviction. @ü«ÂÂ :Î Â! - ì "YP- Y « _üx/ - ! «üP- Y_t $@x - d55o The first highlighted area answers the first ques- tion by telling what the raid was about: a raid on a federal arsenal to obtain weapons. The second high- lighted area explains the importance of the raid, the second question posed. The raid was one more instance pitting Northerners against Southerners. Read the following headings with a partner and turn them into questions. What do you expect to discover? A! - G:/ :üR xY $) - }Â:«Î 8o W- }«Î _ÂY"}Â:«Î $) - }Â: «Î 5) The Opposing Sides Reconstruction Begins The Opposing Economies Lincoln and the Radical Republicans The Political Situation The Wade-Davis Bill The First Modern War The Freedman's Bureau 3:Analysis Skill Standard CS4 Relating Current Events Ohrcnologtcal and §patiai Thinking To better understand historical events both in the past and the present, you should learn to relate current events to the physical and human characteristics of places and regions. he events of the past can have a long-lasting impact, extending even to the T present day. For example, the work of the framers of the Constitution is a continued topic of interpretation and debate. Lawyers, legislators, and citizens regularly debate the intent of the Constitution, especially regarding issues such as the right to bear arms, the purpose of the electoral college, or the balance between personal freedoms and national security. In the decades leading up to the Civil War, a number of events had a long-range impact on the United States. During this volatile time in our nation's history, deci- sions were made about the removal of Native Americans from their ancestral lands. In addition, a war with Mexico resulted in the vast expansion of American territo- ries in the West. Finally, a Supreme Court ruling declared that African Americans could never become citizens. Read the following passages about how Presidents Jackson and Van Buren moved Native Americans from their homelands to the West. gÎ d67s hx}®_«Î _:Î - P Â!- gÎ P:xÎ W- ì «/ xüO}Âp§ ! :}! ! - ü@- P Â!- _ÂxÂ- _ Y- ü«}xÂ- F xÂ:/ - Oì - Y:} xÎ _ Â« üxY - ü> "Î :Î! x; :Â-P Y- : «Î _ § - _Â« Â! - H :__:__:@@: W:/ - Yt $@x - d69o In d676 H xYÂ :Î CxÎ N"Y- Î phx}®_«Î c_ _"}}- __«Yp _- Î Â:Î Â! - xYì > Â« «Y}:; ü> ì «/ - Â!- G! - Y«®- - t W«" ! ü> Jps s s G! - Y«®- - P:- P :Î }xì @_ § ! :ü- § x:Â:Î «Y Â! - § - _Â§xYP ì xY}! Â« ; - :Î t y Î Â! - «"YÎ- >p ®Î «§ Î Â« Â!- G! - Y«®- - x_ Â!- AYx:ü« A- xY_px; «"ÂJps s s «Â! - Y_ P:- P « _ÂxY/xÂ:«Î p P:_- x_- p xÎ P - ñ@«_"Y- t $@x - d69o With the passage of the Indian Removal Act and the forced removal of the Cherokee, by 1838 most Native Americans had left the eastern part of the United States. They now lived on government reservations west of the Mississippi River. ll1lmllrmJ ] As you read this chapter, consider how the seeds of unrest were sown during this criti- cal period. What human characteristics moti- vated some Americans to seek the physical and political isolation of Native Americans and African Americans? What is the impact today of this legacy of separation? How has a Mexican history influenced western states, particularly those bordering on Mexico, such as California? : r r n bü güüQQ &lï d r,a MÂÂ J. xt R) z ) wGAüc$oF é The New Republic G«Î Î - }Â:«Î In the previous chapter, you studied the development of state constitutions and New industries and railroads trans- formed the North in the early 1800s, while slavery expanded in the South. (p. 178) W- xP:Î y ; - }Â:/ - _ B- _}Y:; - the rise of political parties, nationalism, and the Supreme Court. I. the national Constitution. In this section, wñ@üx:Î why industrialization thrived you will discover how the new nation in the North and cotton dominated the G«Î Â-Î ÂC«}x; "üxY> continued to develop and how Americans Southern economy. developed a sense of nationalism. cabinet, enumerated powers, implied powers, judicial review, nativism, W- xP:Î ) Â:cxÂ-> $Â dÂdo labor union y Y xÎ :?:Î As you read about the early The United States established a federal years of the American republic, complete O}xP-ì :} C«}x; "üxY> government created the Bill of Rights, a graphic organizer by listing actions that clause, ambiguous strengthened the federal government at and witnessed the first political parties. (p. 173) V-«@ü- xÎ P A- Yì _ Â« gP- Î Â: > home and abroad. During the Jefferson administration, Bill of Rights, Louisiana Purchase, the Supreme Court established judicial McCulloch v. Maryland, Monroe Doctrine, review, and the country doubled in Industrial Revolution, Eli Whitney size. (p. 175) After the War of 1812, Americans Vüx}-_ Â« z «}xÂ- focused on policies that brought the District of Columbia, Louisiana Territory nation together. (p. 176) VY-/: -§ « w/ - Î Â_ CU:llt d165l l l Ü Î...._ 18Ul Eli Whitney invents Marbury v. Madison United States Monroe j George Washington becomes president the cotton gin case decided; Louisiana declares war Doctrine Purchase made on Britain announced The followíng are the main I.. History-Social Science Standards ' covered ln thís section. ~ The Big Idea ~ ddtdtJ Analyze the ideological ori- gins of the American Revolution, the ) }P-Â:-_ }! xÎ - «/ -YÂ:ì -t During this time of change, the federal government Founding Fathers' philosophy of became stronger, political parties developed, and the Supreme Court established divinely bestowed unalienable natural rights, the debates on the drafting and judicial review. The country expanded westward with the Louisiana Purchase. ratification of the Constitution, and the addition of the Bill of Rights. Nationalism increased after the War of 1812 as the government focused on national I ütütü Understand the history of the policy. Great change also came during the Industrial Revolution. Constitution after 1787 with emphasis on federal versus state authority and growing democratization. ddtJ Students analyze the relationship among the rise of industrialization, large-scale rural-to-urban migration, and massive immi- gration from Southern and Eastern Europe. 172 CHAPTER 2 Growth and Conflict The E~rly Veatr$ of the Republic: these departments and advise him. His appoint- ments included Thomas Jefferson as Secretary of State and Alexander Hamilton as Treasury Secretary. $D o~~o A! - MÎ :Â- P ) ÂxÂ- _ -_Âx; ü:_! - P x - P- Yxü «/ - Congress also organized the judicial branch. The -YÎ ì - Î Âp }Y- xÂ- P x N:üü« W:! Â_pxÎ P § :ÂÎ - __- P Â! - :Y_Â Judiciary Act of 1789 outlined the makeup of the @«ü:Â:}xü @xYÂ :- _t Supreme Court and established lower federal courts. Readöng $y üdDdd- P:® :üüüOf all the freedoms that are As the first Chief Justice of the United States, granted to Americans, which do you consider most precious, Washington chose John Jay. and why? Read on to learn about the ratification of the Bill of Rights, which guarantees basic freedoms to all Americans. The BiH « Righb One of the most important acts of Congress in 1789 was to propose amendments to the Constitution. During the campaign to ratify the The newly elected members of Congress met even Constitution, the Federalists had promised to add a before the Constitution had been ratified. Americans bill of rights detailing the rights of American citizens. were confident, though, because they knew George In December 1791, the N:üüof W: ! Â_l Â! - first 10 Washington would be the first president. amendments to the Constitution-were ratified. Eight of the amendments protect the rights of individ- An American Story uals against the government. The Ninth Amendment states that the people have other rights that are not ~~ listed in the Constitution. The Tenth Amendment On April 6, 1789, the ballots of the presidential elec- adds that any powers not specifically given to the fed- tors were officially counted in the new United States eral government are reserved for the states. Senate. As expected, George Washington became the first president of the United States under the new A:Dü} ®ü:Î :üM::ÂüPxü AY«"; ü- _ With the bureau- Constitution. Americans everywhere greeted the news cracy up and running, the most pressing concerns with great joy, but Washington remained unexcited. involved the economy. The federal government had Calling his election "the event which I have long inherited a huge debt from the Continental Congress. As Secretary of the Treasury, Alexander dreaded," he described his feelings as "not unlike those Hamilton proposed a plan to pay off all debts. He of a culprit who is going to the place of his execution." also wanted the federal government to accept Although Washington had high hopes for the new responsibility for the states' outstanding debts. Constitution, he did not know if it would work as Hamilton called for the creation of a national bank to intended. "I am... [bringing] the voice of the people manage the country's finances. and a good name of my own on this voyage; but what returns will be made of them, Heaven alone can fore- tell." Despite his doubts and frustrations with the "ten George Washington Y thousand embarrassments, perplexities and troubles of the presidency," the new president retained his faith in the American people. He explained that "noth- ing but harmony, honesty, industry and frugality are necessary to make us a great and happy people.... We are surrounded by the blessings of nature." -adapted from Washington: The Indispensable Man When President Washington and the newly elected Congress took office, one of their first tasks was to organize the government itself. In the summer of 1789, Congress created three executive depart- ments: the Department of State, the Department of the Treasury, and the Department of War, along with the Office of the Attorney General. Washington then chose his }x; :Î - Âl Â! - individuals who would head CHAPTER 2 Growth and Conflict 173 Thomas Jefferson, James Madison, and others A! - W:_- « V«ü:Â:}xü VxYÂ :- _ The handling of the favored less government interference in the economy. Whiskey Rebellion intensified the tensions that had They also pointed out that establishing a bank was arisen over Hamilton's financial program. By 1794 not one of the federal government's - Î "ì - YxÂ- P the factions in Congress had solidified into rival @«§ - Y_l Â! - powers specifically mentioned in the political parties. Constitution. Hamilton rebuffed this criticism by cit- Hamilton's supporters called themselves ing Article I, Section 8, which gives the federal gov- Federalists. They favored a strong national govern- ernment the power "to make all laws which shall be ment led by the "rich, well born, and able." The necessary and proper" to fulfill its responsibilities. Federalist Party included many manufacturers, mer- The "necessary and proper" }üx"_- p he said, created chants, and bankers, especially in the urban :ì @ü:- P @«§ - Y_l @«§ - Y_ not explicitly listed in the Northeast who believed that manufacturing and Constitution but necessary for the government to do trade were the basis of national wealth and power. its job. A national bank, Hamilton argued, was Their opponents, led by Madison and Jefferson, needed to collect taxes, regulate trade, and provide took the name Democratic-Republicans, although for the common defense. most people at the time referred to them as Hamilton eventually won approval for his financial Republicans. They favored strict limits on the federal program after promises to Southern congressmen that government's power and protection of states' rights the nation's capital would be moved to the B:_ÂY:}Âof and supported agriculture over commerce and trade. G«ü"ì ; :x on land donated by Virginia and Maryland. The party had a strong base among farmers in the With that settled, the Bank of the United States was rural South and West. established in 1791 for a 20-year period. The same year, Congress enacted a high tax on Tough Times for Adam$ After two terms as presi- whiskey. The new tax brought in needed revenue, dent, a weary George Washington stepped down but it proved extremely unpopular among Western from office. His Farewell Address to the American farmers who resisted the tax by terrorizing tax collec- people warned of the dangers of party politics and tors, robbing mail, and destroying whiskey-making sectionalism-pitting North against South, or East stills of those who paid the tax. In August 1794, against West. Washington also urged Americans "to President Washington sent nearly 13,000 troops to steer clear of permanent alliances with any portion of crush the Whiskey Rebellion. the foreign world." Washington's successor as president was a fellow r-0 £~. >-i Federalist, John Adams. One of Adarns's most urgent challenges was averting war with France. France was t b~Ü:ÂÂ«Îx Î P Â! - h- -Y_«Î xÎ P Â! - I enraged by a treaty between the United States and i v-P-Yxü:_Â_ ü -ì «}YxÂì}lW-@"; ü®xÎ _ Britain and had begun seizing American ships at sea. 1 The two nations soon were fighting an undeclared J Strong national Strong state war at sea until negotiations finally brought an end government · government to hostilities in 1800. Ruling power given to Ruling power given to all Meanwhile, the division between the two political wealthy, educated landowners parties had been deepening. The Federalists resented ¡ Government should Government should the harsh Republican criticism. Using their majority promote manufacturing promote agriculture in Congress, they passed the Alien and Sedition Acts in 1798. One of these laws made it a crime to utter or Loose_ ínt_erpretation of the Strict interpretation of the d print anything "false, scandalous, and malicious" I Constitution Protective tariffs protect f domestic industries Constitution ' Protective tariffs burden farmers I against the federal government or any federal offi- cial. The other laws were directed at aliens-foreign- ers living in the country-who often were anti-British and tended to vote Republican once they ü became citizens. The new laws made it harder for ! L,,,; them to gain citizenship and left them vulnerable to 1. Interpreting Charts Which party did not support deportation without trial. tariffs, and why? 2. Making Generalizations Which party usually Many Americans denounced the Alien and attracted bankers and manufacturers? Sedition Acts as an infringement on people's free- doms. ln 1798 and 1799, Kentucky and Virginia 174 CHAPTER 2 Growth and Conflict passed resolutions challenging the laws' constitu- tionality. At the time, few states accepted the prem- ise behind the resolutions that states had a right to decide on the validity of federal laws. Many years later, states used these ideas to defend their interests. The EIEdÏOllíl of 1800 When he ran for reelection in 1800, John Adams could not overcome public anger over the Alien and Sedition Acts and a new tax the Federalists had passed. The winner, how- ever, was not clear. Thomas Jefferson had unexpect- edly tied with Aaron Burr, his running mate for Â vice president. ~------- The Constitution specified that citizens would -p. OÎ xü>?:Î Política! Cartoons vote for electors who would then vote for president R xY NÜÂ § --Î Â!- VxY::$:cD_ This cartoon reveals the emotions of American and vice president. Collectively known as the politics in the 1790s. Republican Matthew Lyon and Federalist Roger Griswold are Electoral College, the electors-a fixed number from shown fighting in the House of Representatives. How did Federalists respond each state-would vote for two persons. The candi- to Republican attacks? date receiving the most votes would become presi- dent; the runner-up would become vice president. Ties would be decided by the House of Representatives. lleffersora Î W Office Thomas Jefferson came to The election results of 1800 revealed a flaw in this sys- Washington committed to limiting the scope of gov- tem for selecting the president, because no one ernment. He began paying off the federal debt, cut expected a tie between political allies. government spending, did away with the hated The divided House took days to reach a decision, whiskey tax, and trimmed the armed forces. but the members finally voted to make Jefferson Weakening the Federalists' control of the judiciary president and Burr vice president. The Federalists, was another aim of the new administration. On his last who controlled both the army and the government, day in office, President Adams had appointed dozens stepped down. The election of 1800 established that of new Federalist judges and court officers. Jefferson power could be peacefully transferred despite dis- asked the incoming Republican Congress to abolish agreements between political parties. It also led to some of the new positions and to withhold the paper- the Twelfth Amendment in 1804, providing for sepa- work confirming other appointments. One of those rate ballots for the president and vice president. who didn't receive his documents, William Marbury, Üwñxì :Î :Î What is the difference took the matter to the Supreme Court. The Court sym- between enumerated powers and implied powers? pathized with Marbury but ruled in 1803 that it could not issue an enforcement order. According to Chief Justice John Marshall and his colleagues, the law that authorized the Court to write such orders actually was The Republicanws Take Poweir unconstitutional and invalid. With the case of Marbury v. Madison, the Court ( !) :.-'.t) y "Y:Î Â! - h- - Y_«Î xPì :Î :_ÂYxÂ:«Î pÂ! - asserted its right of "P:}:xü Y- / :- § p the power to ) "@Y- ì - G«"YÂ-_Âx; ü:_! - P "P:}:xü Y- / :- § pxÎ P Â! - decide whether laws are constitutional and to strike }«"Î ÂY>P«"; ü- P :Î _:?- t down those that are not. John Marshall remained as Chief Justice for more than 30 years, continuing to Readäng (ormedñmn Are there times when you feel build the Supreme Court into a powerful independ- especially patriotic? Read on to learn about the War of 1812, ent branch of the federal government. which generated a new spirit of patriotism. R -_Â§ xYP wñ@xÎ _:«Î Under Jefferson, the size of Tumultuous times continued with President the country increased considerably. The Treaty of Jefferson's attempts to limit the federal government Paris of 1783 had already established the Mississippi and the power of the judiciary. At the same time, the as the western border of the United States. After the country greatly expanded in size and faced another defeat of Native Americans in the Northwest war with Great Britain. Territory and the Treaty of Greenville in 1795, more CHAPTER 2 Growth and Conflict 175 Boston Public Library settlers poured into the region. During Washington's term, Kentucky and Tennessee had become new The Growth of American states, and Ohio followed suit in 1803. Nationalism In 1800 Spain had given Louisiana back to France. To finance his plans for European conquest, « ~YÂ~o 8 Â- YÂ! - R xY « 1812, Oì - Y:}xÎ _ «}"_- P «Î the French leader, Napoleon Bonaparte, now offered @«ü:}:- _ Â! xÂ; Y«" ! ÂÂ! - Î xÂ:«Î Â« - Â! - Yt to sell all of the z «":_:xÎ x A- YY :Â«Y>p as well as New Orleans, to the United States. Congress overwhelm- Reading Coamedi®ira Do you know of any Supreme ingly approved the z «":_:xÎ x V"Y}! x_- of April 30, Court decisions that had a significant national impact? Read on 1803. The United States paid $11.25 million and also to learn about Supreme Court decisions that strengthened the agreed to take on French debts of about $3.75 mil- power of the federal government. lion owed to American citizens. The United States had more than doubled its size and gained control After the war of 1812, a sense of nationalism swept of the entire Mississippi River. the United States. More and more Americans began to consider themselves to be part of a whole, rather The War of 1812 A foreign relations crisis loomed than identifying with a state or region. Riding this when Republican James Madison became president wave of nationalism was Republican James Monroe, in 1809. The British regularly seized American ships the nation's fifth president. Harmony in national pol- at sea and often practiced impressment, kidnapping itics reached a new high, mostly because only one sailors to serve in the British navy. Americans in the party, the Republicans, had any power. At the same West also accused Britain of inciting Native time, the war had taught Americans that a stronger Americans to attack white settlers. President Jefferson federal government was advantageous. In the post- had tried economic sanctions with the Embargo Act war years, Republican leaders shifted their focus of 1807, but the actions mostly hurt the United States. from world affairs to national growth. Like Jefferson, President Madison first responded with economic measures. After several attempts, the w}«Î «ì :} F x ü tb üüx::_ì As Monroe's presidency measures finally began to have the desired effect. began, Congress prepared an ambitious economic Unfortunately, word of British cooperation came too program that included creating a new national bank. late-Congress had already declared war. The charter of the First Bank of the United States had At the beginning of the War of 1812, conquering not been renewed, and the results had been disas- Canada was the primary objective of the United trous. State-chartered banks and other private banks States. American forces on Lake Erie and Lake greatly expanded their lending with bank notes that Champlain were victorious but they could not pre- were used as money. Without the regulatory presence vent the British from marching into Washington, D.C. of the national bank, prices rose rapidly during the and setting fire to both the White House and the War of 1812. Capitol. In Baltimore, though, the British encountered Other legislation included the Tariff of 1816, a strong defense. After bombarding the city's harbor aimed at protecting American manufacturers by tax- throughout the night of September 13, the British ing imports. The Republicans also wanted to build abandoned their attack early the next morning. The roads and canals. President Madison vetoed this leg- sight of the American flag still flying at dawn inspired islation, arguing that the Constitution did not Francis Scott Key to pen "The Star-Spangled Banner," empower Congress to improve transportation. which later became the national anthem. Nevertheless, road and canal construction soon With battles still raging, peace talks began in the began with support from private businesses and European city of Ghent. The Treaty of Ghent, signed state and local governments. on December 24, 1814, restored prewar boundaries but did not mention neutral rights or impressment. h"P:}:xü FxÂ:}ì xW:_ì The judicial philosophy of Still, it increased the nation's prestige overseas and the Chief Justice of the United States, John Marshall, generated a new spirit of patriotism. The American provided another boost to postwar nationalism. In victory also destroyed the Federalist Party, which several important cases between 1816 and 1824, had strongly opposed the war. Marshall interpreted the Constitution broadly to sup- port federal power. ~ffl:t wñ@üx:Î :Î Why is the Supreme The 1819 case of McCulloch / t Maryland involved Court decision Marbury v. Madison important? Maryland's attempt to tax the Baltimore branch of the 176 CHAPTER 2 Growth and Conflict ~- ·.,....,_ ----; ··------~\:;l "~~!.=:~~~~~:.=::===::::~L;-~ ~~~~.;,;;;, ·"'' Marbury v. Madison (1803) Declared congressional act unconstitutional; Court asserts power of judicial review Fletcher v. Peck (1810) Protected contracts from legislative interference; Court could overturn state laws that opposed specific provisions of Constitution Martin v. Hunter's Lessee (1816) Court can accept appeals of state court decisions and review state decisions that involve federal statutes or treaties; asserted the Supreme Court's sovereignty over ¡ state courts ¡ McCulloch v. Maryland (1819) Upheld constitutionality of the Bank of the United States; doctrine of "implied powers" provided Congress more flexibility to enact legislation l Cohens / t Virginia ¡ (1821) Reasserted federal judicial authority over state courts; argued that when states ratified Constitution, they gave up some sovereignty to federal courts ! Gibbons / t Ogden (1824) Revoked an existing state monopoly; Court gave Congress the right to regulate interstate commerce I Source: The Oxford Companion to the Supreme Court of the United States dt Interpreting Charts In which case did Chief Justice Marshall assert the Court's right of judicial review? 2. Analyzing Was Marshall a strict interpreter of the Second Bank of the United States. Before addressing Constitution? Use a case to support your answer. Maryland's right to tax the national bank, the Supreme Court first ruled on the federal government's right to create a national bank in the first place. In the Court's opinion, written by [ohn Marshall, the Constitution When Spain was unable to control the border, gave the federal government the power to collect taxes, Secretary of War John C. Calhoun sent troops under to borrow money, to regulate commerce, and to raise the command of Andrew Jackson into Florida. armies and navies. TI1e national bank helped the fed- President Adams then put pressure on Spain in ongo- eral government exercise these powers. Marshall con- ing border questions. Occupied with problems cluded that the "necessary and proper" clause allowed throughout its Latin American empire, Spain gave in the federal government to use its powers in any way and ceded all of Florida to the United States in the not specifically prohibited by the Constitution. (]]ì (See Adams-Onís Treaty of 1819. page 1005 for more information on McCulloch v. Maryland) Spain had good reason to worry about Latin Marshall then went on to argue that the federal America. Many of Spain's colonies there were declar- government was "supreme in its own sphere of ing their independence. Meanwhile, some European action." This meant that a state government could monarchies expressed their interest in helping Spain not interfere with an agency of the federal govern- suppress these Latin American revolutions. Neither ment exercising its specific constitutional powers Great Britain nor the United States wanted Spain to within a state's borders. regain control of its colonies. ln another case, Gibbons v. Ogden, the Court ruled The Monroe administration also had concerns at that states could regulate commerce only within their this time about Russia's growing interest in the borders, but that control of interstate commerce was a American northwest. In 1821 Russia had announced federal right. Defenders of states' rights attacked that its empire extended south from Alaska to the many of Marshall's decisions, which helped make the Oregon territory. "necessary and proper" clause and the interstate com- Under these circumstances, Monroe decided to merce clause vehicles for expanding federal power. issue a statement in December 1823. In the H «Î Y«- fi (See page 1005 for more information on Gibbons v. Ogden) B«}ÂY:Î - p the president declared that the American continents should no longer be viewed as open to col- NationaHst R>Hplo11muy Postwar nationalism also onization. He specifically advised Europe to respect influenced foreign affairs. During the early 1800s, the sovereignty of new Latin American nations. QJi Spanish-held Florida was a source of frustration for (See page 994 for more information on the Monroe Dodrine.) Southerners. Many runaway slaves hid there, and the Seminole, a Native American group, often clashed ~fljffl!D OÎ xü>?:Î How did the decisions with American settlers across the border in Georgia. of the Marshall Court strengthen the federal government? CHAPTER 2 Growth and Conflict 177 ,/ ,. -:-:~~, □ '·· NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC Roads, Canals, and Railroads, 1820-1840 \\ , ' I :, ·, :.l.., ·,J~' \ ·--..~.¡;~~:;,¡\ -~,,:,.__ --:-;1;=>' '\~t.-. e ';.:., ·::e;- _) J A Revolution i.u Tramis~ ,~ ,.....,~, BRITISH , \. ,./;::::( pertatlen With the United [).., \î NORTH AMERICA } ME. \·~' / i States expanding rapidly, ·~\ --· Canal , c.-. · ~~ -,, ,,,. - · '?sauft Ste. Marie ~-½( \ · --{\_ ìl;i' ~ '.r,ôHÍand.- t,_, ,/ Americans sought new ways to connect the distant regions \, - Railroad vi,,-"'_ ~ - '!! - Road I 1">- \ ~ ',.,,,,:;.,- of the country. The first steps , r r - ~~-=~ ston came in 1806, when Congress SS. (~. IOWA funded the building of a R.I. NN. AC'l-l major east-west highway. The York City National Road turned out to Philadelphia be the only great U.S.-funded ··... ~ ore DEL. transportation project of its Ì' ~ MD. UNORG..~-.l') time. American leaders dis- TERR..,___.,..,..,.. nd orfolk agreed on whether the Con- MO. stitution permitted such internal ,.. ,,)' improvements. Instead, states, ' - l ',I I I \ I.' '·-,_\ ·...., ,... - A,RK. ,-a~-~~~-;~ ' ilmington arleston 70'W localities, and private busi- nesses took the initiative by laying hundreds of miles of toll roads. Rivers offered a more effi- ' \ REI¡. OF cient and cheaper way to move I TE:xAS goods than did early roads. _,)..'rLÀNT!c Loaded boats and barges, OC:EÂN however, could usually travel only downstream, as trips against the current with heavy cargoes were impractical. The steamboat changed all that. The first successful such ves- I. Interpreting Maps Which Southern state had the most sel, the Clermont, was devel- miles of railroad track? oped by Robert Fulton and 2. Applying Geography Skills Why do you think canals promoted by Robert R. Livingston. By 1850 more than were more common in the North than in other areas? 700 steamboats, also called riverboats, traveled the Mississippi, the Great Lakes, and other waterways. Railroads also appeared in the early 1800s. A wealthy, self-educated industrialist named Peter A Growing Nation Cooper built the Tom Thumb, a tiny but powerful locomotive based on engines originally developed in $Â :Â9 Ü- § :Î P"_ÂY:- _ xÎ P Yx:üY«xP_ ÂYxÎ _ «Yì - P Great Britain. Perhaps more than any other kind of Â! - F«YÂ ! :Î Â! - -xYü> d6ss_p § ! :ü- _üx/ - Y>- ñ@xÎ P- P transportation, trains helped settle the West and :Î Â! - ) «"Â! t expand trade among the nation's different regions. Reading Conîiledion What kinds of businesses generate the most wealth in the United States today? Read on to learn WÎ P"_ÂY:xü:~?xÂ:ì dd ) § --@_ Â! - Â3ü «YÂ! Along with dramatic changes in transportation, a revolution about the critical role that farming and industry played during occurred in business and industry. The gÎ P"_ÂY:xü the early 1800s. W- / «ü"Â:«Î p which began in Britain in the middle 1700s, brought large-scale manufacturing using com- The early 1800s were a time of rapid change in the plex machines and organized workforces in factories. United States. Transportation greatly improved access Manufacturers sold their wares nationwide or abroad to different regions, while the Industrial Revolution instead of just locally. By the early 1800s, these inno- turned the North into a manufacturing center. The vations had reached the United States. They trans- South, meanwhile, continued to rely on agriculture. formed not only the economy, but society as well. 178 CHAPTER 2 Growth and Conflict The United States industrialized quickly for sev- 1854 delegates from some of these groups formed the eral reasons. Perhaps the key factor was the American Party. This party came to be called the American system of free enterprise based on private Know-Nothings because its members, when ques- property rights. People could acquire and use capital tioned about their activities, were supposed to without strict governmental controls while competi- answer, "I know nothing." tion between companies encouraged them to try new By 1860, factory workers numbered roughly 1.3 technologies. The era's low taxes also meant that million. They included many women and children, entrepreneurs had more money to invest. In addi- who would accept lower wages than men. Not even tion, beginning in the 1830s, many states encouraged men were well paid, however, and factory workers industrialization by passing general incorporation typically toiled for 12 or more drudgery-filled hours laws that greatly eased the forming of businesses. a day. Hoping to gain higher wages or shorter work- Industrialization began in the Northeast, where days, some workers began to organize in üx; «Y many swift-flowing streams provided factories with "Î :«Î _l Y«"@_ of workers who press for better waterpower. The region was also home to many entre- working conditions and member benefits. During the preneurs who were willing to invest in British technol- late 1820s and early 1830s, about 300,000 men and ogy. Soon textile mills sprung up throughout the women belonged to these organizations. Early labor Northeast. The use of interchangeable parts, or stan- unions had little power. Most employers refused to dard components, popularized by a New Englander bargain with them, and the courts often saw them as named Eli R ! :Â Î - >p led to factories producing lum- unlawful conspiracies that limited free enterprise. ber, shoes, leather, wagons, and other products. The Decades would pass before organized labor achieved sewing machine allowed inexpensive clothes to be real influence. mass produced, and canning allowed foods to be stored and transported without fear of spoilage. In 1832 a major improvement in communications Factcli'y Wo!i'!iel' This young girl worked in the new factories of took place when Samuel F.B. Morse began perfecting the Northeast. the telegraph and developing Morse code. Journalists began using the telegraph to speedily relay news. By 1860 more than 50,000 miles of telegraph wire con- nected most parts of the country. MY; l::D u YI §ÂD!: xì: P hllfülîl1!ñgratfomi The industrial- ization of the United States drew thousands of peo- ple from farms and villages to towns in search of higher-paying factory jobs. Many city populations doubled or tripled. ln 1820 only New York boasted more than 100,000 residents. By 1860 eight other cities had reached that size. Immigrants hoping for a better life in the United States also contributed to urban growth. Between 1815 and 1860, over 5 million foreigners journeyed to America. While thousands of newcomers, particu- larly Germans, became farmers in the rural West, many others settled in cities, providing a steady source of cheap labor. A large number of Irish-over 44,000-arrived in 1845, after a devastating potato blight caused widespread famine in their homeland. The presence of people from different cultures, with different languages and different religions, pro- duced feelings of Î xÂ:/í _ì p a preference for native- born people and a desire to limit immigration. Several societies sprang up to keep foreign-born per- sons and Catholics-the main religion of the Irish and many Germans-from holding public office. In CHAPTER 2 Growth and Conflict 179 The Continuing Importance of Agriculture ization. Compared to the many textile mills and fac- Despite the trend toward urban and industrial tories in the North, the Southern region had only growth, agriculture remained the country's leading scattered iron works, textile mills, and coal, iron, salt, economic activity. Until the late 1800s, farming and copper mines. Together, these accounted for only employed more people and produced more wealth 16 percent of the nation's total manufacturing. than any other kind of work. Farming was even more important in the South, Enslaved and free African Americans The which had few cities and less industry. The South spread of cotton plantations boosted the Southern thrived on the production of several major cash economy, but it also made the demand for slave labor crops, including tobacco, rice, and sugarcane. No skyrocket. Congress had outlawed the foreign slave crop, however, played a greater role in the South's trade in 1808, but a high birthrate among enslaved fortunes during this period than cotton, which was women-encouraged by slaveholders-kept the grown in a wide belt stretching from inland South population growing. Between 1820 and 1850, the Carolina west into Texas. number of slaves in the South rose from about 1.5 In 1793 Eli Whitney invented the cotton gin- million to nearly 3.2 million, to account for almost 37 "gin" being short for engine-that quickly and effi- percent of the total Southern population. ciently removed cotton seeds from bolls, or cotton The overwhelming majority of enslaved African pods. Cotton production soared, and by 1860 Americans toiled in the fields on small farms. Some Southern cotton accounted for nearly two-thirds of became house servants, while others worked in the total export trade of the United States. trades. All enslaved persons, no matter how well Southerners began saying, rightly, "Cotton is King." treated, suffered indignities. State slave codes forbade While agriculture brought prosperity to Southern enslaved men and women from owning property, states, they lagged behind the North in industrial- leaving a slaveholder's premises without permission, tüüt7M~g üD gP Ü9:: Yì ÜÜÜÜÜÜÜ t pt W'u '!')~ t~Ü~hQ Üpt2Ü' Ügg Ât ptttttt ÜÜÜÜ The (1) Cotton bolls are @ A }YxÎ ®turns the }>ü:Î P- Y @ Slots in the grate allow ·-· dumped into the ··· with wire teeth. The teeth the cotton, but not its Cotton Gin hopper. pull the cotton past a grate. seeds, to pass through. While visiting Catherine Greene's Georgia plantation in 1793, Eli Whitney had an $8~~ A second cylinder with YxÂ- hopper ·· brushes pulls the cotton inspiration. He built a device off the toothed cylinder that removed the seeds of and sends it out of the gin. the "green-seed" cotton variety that grew in abun- dance throughout the South. Whitney devised a "gin" (short for engine) that combed the seeds out of the cotton. This simple cotton gin was easy to mass pro- duce, and it increased cot- ton's profitability for many Southern farmers. How did the invention of the cotton gin affect the South's economy? 180 CHAPTER 2 Growth and Conflict or testifying in court against a white person. Laws even banned "ê ~ ª the dark night them from learning to read and write. Frederick Douglass, who ofslavery closed in rose from slavery to become a ,, prominent leader of the anti- slavery movement, recalled how itpon me !> life as an enslaved person -Frederick Douglass affected him: My natural elasticity was crushed; my intellect languished; the disposition to read departed; the cheerful spark that lingered about my eye died out; the dark night of slavery closed in upon me, and behold a man transformed to a brute.,, -from Narrative of the Life of Frederick Douglass Music helped many African Americans endure the horrors of slavery. Songs also played a key role in religion, one of the most important parts of African American culture. Many enslaved men and women found ways to had been outlawed, but they were not embraced actively resist the dreadful lifestyle forced on them. there either. Still, in the North free African Americans Some quietly staged work slowdowns. Others broke could organize their own churches and voluntary tools or set fire to houses and barns. Still others associations. They also were able to earn money from risked beatings or mutilations by running away. the jobs they held. Some enslaved persons turned to violence, killing their owners or plotting revolts. ~t îMtHI B- _}Y:; :Î How did the Industrial Revolution change American society? Free African Americans occupied an xì ; : "«"_ position in Southern society. In cities like Charleston and New Orleans, some were successful enough to HISTORY "" become slaveholders themselves. Almost 200,000 free -~M_::_-~ ) Â"P> G- Î ÂYxü African Americans lived in the North, where slavery For help with the concepts in this section of American Vision: Modern Times go to @\UJ1t.glençpe.com and click on Study Central. Checking for Understanding Critical Thinking Analyzing Visuals dt Vocabulary Define: cabinet, enumer- 9t Synthesizing Name at least three key 7. Posing Questions Study the chart of ated powers, clause, implied powers, moments in the early 1800s when fed- Supreme Court decisions on page 177. judicial review, nativism, labor union, eral authority clashed with state author- Use the information to construct a 10- ambiguous ity. What trend developed in the question quiz to give to your classmates 2. People and Terms Identify: Bill of resolution of these disputes? to assess their understanding of the Rights, Louisiana Purchase, McCulloch 6. Organizing Use a graphic organizer Marshall Court. v. Maryland, Monroe Doctrine, similar to the one below to list exam- Industrial Revolution, Eli Whitney ples of nationalism in the United States 3. Places Locate: District of Columbia, after the War of 1812. 8. Expository Writing Imagine you Louisiana Territory are a newspaper editor in Georgia or Examples of Nationalism Spanish-held Florida. Write an editorial W- / :- § :Î N: ideas 4. Discussing Does the Monroe Doctrine Economic IJudicial I Diplomatic in which you criticize or defend the represent a continuation or a change in I I Alien and Sedition Acts. nt1;1U%:mmw¡gr, President Washington's foreign policy? Why or why not? CHAPTER 2 Growth and Conflict 181 ◄ I ~ ) wGAgy F Growing Division and Reform u ":ü - Â« W-x}Â:Î G«Î Î - }Â:«Î G«Î Â-Î ÂC«}x; "üxY> W- xP:Î y ; - }Â:/ - _ In the previous section, you learned how spoils system, caucus, secede, Discuss the issues surrounding the changes in politics, territory, and produc- nullification, temperance, abolition, Missouri Compromise. tion methods changed the United States. emancipation Explain the goals of the temperance In this section, you will discover how movement, the women's movement, growing sectional disputes affected the O}xP- ì :} C«}x; "üxY> and the abolition movement. t nation and how reformers sought to improve society. }- ?QÎ item, academic V- «@ü- xÎ P A- Yì _ Â« gP- Î Â: > W- xP:Î ) ÂYxÂ- > Sequencing As you read about growing I I Missouri Compromise, John C. Calhoun, division and reform in the early 1800s, Sectionalism increased after the War of Trail of Tears, Whig, Second Great complete a time line similar to the one 1812, while voting rights expanded for Awakening, Elizabeth Cady Stanton, below to record key events. Frederick Douglass American citizens. (p. 183) The Second Great Awakening brought an era of reform. (p. 186) Vüx}- _ Â« z« }xÂ- i I Missouri, Seneca Falls i- VY- /: - § « w/ - Î Â_ fi ??:Î C:_"xü_ dt C«}x; "üxY> Define: spoils system, 9t wñ@üx:Î :Î What were the issues 6t wñxì :Î :Î OYÂStudy the painting on caucus, item, secede, nullification, behind the Missouri Compromise? page 187 of the camp meeting. What temperance, academic, abolition, elements of the image suggest that the emancipation. GY:Â:}xü A! :Î ®:Î revival attracted many working-class Jt V-«@ü- xÎ P A-Yì _ Identify: Missouri ·t lt -+i,, t MÎ P- Y_ÂxÎ P:Î people? Compromise, John C. Calhoun, Trail of G! xÎ - How did the Second Great Tears, Whig, Second Great Awakening, Awakening affect the reform spirit of Elizabeth Cady Stanton, Frederick themid-1800s? n;-(c)Aon HunUey, (D)Aoyatty -Ftee/ CO.·. , z.:;,.#~t)Lif~lt~JI O irne-~ G@m §cdru@cn10MSl8 The painting New England Schaal by Charles Frederick Bosworth tells the tale of teachers' challenges in early public schools. With a mixed-aged class, the teacher had to teach a few students at a time, leaving the others to their own education-or entertainment. SClf!IIID~~ LM!ii'B«:ìfo ?ai5~ G! - }®:Î «Y MÎ P-Y_ÂxÎ P:Î dt wñ@üx:Î :Î Why would an increase in voting rights be a reason for broader public education? GYíÂ:}xD A! :Î ®:Î Jt ) >Î Â! -_:?:Î What could you have done to mini- mize the distractions in a one-room schoolhouse? Manifest Destiny and Crisis u ":ü - :tò W-x}ü: " =··... ~·- ¡¡ r: G«Î Î - }Â: «Î G«Î Â- Î ÂC«}x; "üxüüi> w/ xü"xÂ- how the Fugitive Slave Act i In the previous section, you learned about social reform and growing ten- sions between states. In this section, you will discover how slavery continued to divide the country and how the election Manifest Destiny, annexation, popular sovereignty, secession, Underground Railroad, transcontinental railroad, insur- rection, Confederacy and the transcontinental railroad heightened sectional tensions. OÎ xü>?- the significance of the Dred Scott decision and John Brown's raid on Harpers Ferry. I ·¡ of Abraham Lincoln as president resulted O}xP-ì :} C«}x; "üxY> wñ@üx:Î how the election of Abraham :i in the secession of Southern states. adjacent, prospect Lincoln as president led to the seces- V-«@ü- xÎ P A-Yì _ Â« gP-Î Â: > sion of the South. In~Gd· c·dS the 1840s, the nation expanded as John C. Frémont, Bear Flag Republic, W- xP:Î ) ÂYxÂ- > settlers moved west. (p. 193) Wilmot Proviso, Harriet Tubman, y Y xÎ :?:Î Complete a graphic organ- Continuing disagreements over the Republican Party, Dred Scott, Crittenden's izer similar to the one below to describe westward expansion of slavery Compromise, Jefferson Davis the outcomes of disputes that arose dur- increased sectional tensions between Vüx}-_ Â« ü«}xÂ- ing this period. the North and South. (p. 195) Harpers Ferry Dispute Outcome The slavery controversy shook up politi- cal parties and accelerated the crisis W- xP:Î y ; - }Â:/ - _ between North and South. (p. 198) B- _}Y:; - the issues surrounding the The election of Abraham Lincoln led War with Mexico and the statehood of the Southern states to secede from the Texas and California. Union. (p. 199) VY-/: -§ « w/ -Î Â_ j i&..:....,,..........;__;.:.i;;..;.: ~1:...;........ hü ÂDVgB~Q TÂQî: ñY~ dÜlG y,. {d,r ::m. I~ i 1846 d798l l l l l l l l llc d79iDl l l ll Oregon boundary dispute settled Kansas-Nebraska Act adopted Supreme Court announces Dred Scott decision :~~! Carolina secedes from the Union. ,~av e;:::~l) «}:xD) }í -Î }- ) ÂxÎ PxYP_ c }«/ -Y-P :Î Â!:_ _-}Â:«Î t ~ The Big Idea 11.1.3 Understand the history of the Constitution after 1787 with emphasis Differen«:es fin ecomllmâ«:, p@lsfü:al, aurad sod~û [Jeiiefs u11rra Head i@ aUvâSìâ«m on federal versus state authority and § :Â! :Î x anafüm. As the United States continued to expand even farther west, sec- growing democratization. ddtJt· Trace the development of the tionalism and disagreements over slavery in the new territories continued to plague United States and its emergence as a the nation. The crisis between free states and slave states resulted in the destruction major industrial power, including its gains from trade and the advantages of of the Whig Party and division within other political parties. After the raid on Harpers its physical geography. Ferry, Southern Democrats became convinced that Northerners and Republicans ddtds tü Examine and analyze the key events, policies, and court cases in the would stop at nothing to end slavery. Spurred by failing compromises and the elec- evolution of civil rights, including Dred Scott v. Sanford, Plessy v. Ferguson, tion of Abraham Lincoln as president, Southern states seceded from the Union, pro- Brown v. Board of Education, Regents claimed themselves a separate nation known as the Confederate States of America, of the University of Colifomia v. Bakke, and California Proposition 209. and appointed Jefferson Davis as their president. 192 CHAPTER 2 Growth and Conflict Manifest Destiny States and Great Britain had agreed in 1818 to occupy the Oregon land jointly. The British dominated the region until about 1840, when the enthusiastic ¢dÂ9dÎ Â! - d68s_pÂ! - Î xÂ:«Î -ñ@xÎ P-P x_ _-ÂÂ ü-Y_ reports of American missionaries began to attract ì «/ -P § -_Ât large numbers of would-be farmers to the region. Reading G«Î Î - P:$DéÎ To which country did California California was a frontier province of Mexico. and Texas belong before they became part of the United States? Because few Mexicans wanted to make their homes Read on to learn how the two states entered the Union. in California, the local government welcomed for- eign settlers. By 1845 more than 700 Americans lived in and around the Sacramento Valley. Though the With the Louisiana Purchase opening up the West, central government in Mexico City relied on these thousands of people began pushing into the Midwest American settlers, it was suspicious about their and beyond, journeying all the way to California and national loyalties. the Oregon Territory. By the 1840s, several east-to-west routes had been carved, including the Oregon Trail, the California An American Story Trail, and the Santa Fe Trail. As the overland traffic ~--== In July 1821, Stephen F. Austin set off from Louisiana increased, the Plains Indians came to resent the threat it posed to their way of life. They feared that the buf- falo herds, on which they relied for food, shelter, for the Texas territory in the northeastern corner of clothing, and tools, would die off or migrate else- Mexico. The Spanish government had promised to where. Hoping to ensure peace, the federal govern- give his father, Moses, a huge tract of Texas land if the ment negotiated the Treaty of Fort Laramie in 1851. elder Austin settled 300 families there from the United Eight Plains Indian groups agreed to specific geo- States. Moses died before he could fulfill his end of graphic boundaries, while the UnHed States prom- the deal. On his deathbed, his dying wish was that ised that the defined territories would belong to Stephen take his place in Texas. the Native Americans forever. White settlers still streamed across the plains, however, provoking Stephen Austin was favorably impressed with the Native American hostility. region. As he surveyed the land grant between the Brazos and Colorado Rivers, he noted its natural abundance: Stephen F. Austin Y ,,The Prairie comes bluff to the river... and affords a most beautiful situation for a Town or settlement.... The country... is as good in every respect as man could wish for, Land all first rate, plenty of timber, fine water, beautifully rolling.,, -quoted in Stephen F. Austin: Empresario of Texas Between the late 1830s and early 1860s, more than 250,000 Americans braved great obstacles to venture west along overland trails. Pushing West The opportunity to farm fertile soil, enter the fur trade, or trade with foreign nations across the Pacific lured farmers, adventurers, and merchants alike. Most emigrants, like the majority of Americans, believed in H xÎ : - _ÂB- _Â:Î >t Manifest Destiny was the idea that the nation was meant to spread to the Pacific. Latecomers to the Mi

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