Ch. 1 Sociology PDF

Ch.1: What is Sociology?  A complex world The world we live in today is so complex and contradictory that almost everyone has asked themselves some sociological questions at some point. Why is our life so different from our grandparents’ life? Why is the human world so grossl...

Ch.1: What is Sociology?  A complex world The world we live in today is so complex and contradictory that almost everyone has asked themselves some sociological questions at some point. Why is our life so different from our grandparents’ life? Why is the human world so grossly unequal? Where are human societies heading in the future? If you have asked yourself such questions, then consider yourself a novice sociologist  What is sociology? Sociology is simply defined as the scientific study of human life, social groups, whole societies and the human world as such. The scope of sociology is extremely wide, ranging from the analysis of passing encounters between individuals on the street to the investigation of international relations and global forms of terrorism  The Sociological Approach Most of us see the world in terms of the familiar features of our own lives – our families, friendships and working lives, etc. But sociology insists that we take a broader view in order to understand why we act in the ways we do. It teaches us that much of what we regard as natural, inevitable, good, true may not be so.  The Sociological Approach Things we take for granted are actually shaped by historical events and social processes. Understanding the subtle yet complex and profound ways in which our individual lives reflect the contexts of our social experience is basic to the sociologist’s outlook.  The Sociological Imagination Doing sociological work depends on developing what the American author C. Wright Mills called the “sociological imagination” (1959). The sociological imagination requires us, above all, to “think ourselves away” from the familiar routines of our daily lives in order to look at them from a new point of view.  Studying People and Society Sociology is the “science of society”; but what is “society”? When sociologists speak of a society, they generally mean a group of people living in a bounded territory who share common cultural features such as language, values and norms. So, we speak of an “Arab society” or a “British society” for exp. However, society also includes institutions – such as education, family, government – and the relatively stable relationships between them.  Social Structures The enduring patterns formed by relationships among people, groups and institutions form the social structure of a society. When we start thinking about social life through the concepts of society, institutions and social structures, we are beginning to use a sociological imagination and to “think sociologically”  The Sociological Imagination Adopting a sociological imagination allows us to see that many events which appear to concern only an individual actually reflect larger issues. Ex: Divorce, unemployment, etc… While these are personal/private tragedies, they are also public/collective matters that millions of people are going through → individual experiences express larger social trends  The Sociological Imagination While we are all influenced by our social context, our behavior is never determined entirely by that context. Sociology investigates the connections between what society makes of us and what we make of ourselves and society Our activities both structure the social world around us and, at the same time, are structured by that world  The Sociological Imagination Social structures are not rigid like a building structure. Human societies are always in a process of structuration. That is, they are reconstructed at every moment by the very “building blocks” that compose them – human beings like you and me! This flexible character of social structure has been dramatically demonstrated in recent years. Ex: collapse of Soviet Union; Arab Uprisings, etc.. → social structures are always evolving and never solid as they may seem.  Drinking a cup of coffee 1. Coffee is not just a refreshment; it has symbolic value as part of our day-to-day social activity (occasion for social interaction) 2. Coffee also contains caffeine, a drug which stimulates the brain (keeps one awake): coffee addicts are more normally regarded than drug addicts (socially accepted drug) 3. An individual who drinks coffee is caught up in a complex set of social and economic relationships stretched across the planet (production, transportation and consumption → poor countries produce/rich ones consume).  Drinking a cup of coffee 4. The act of sipping coffee presumes a long process of social and economic development. Along with other items of Western diets, coffee became widely consumed only after the 1800s (Western expansion and European colonization of Africa and South America) → Coffee is not a “natural” part of Western diet 5. Coffee has become “branded” and politicized → which kind of coffee? Where you drink it? Organic or not? Starbucks or Uncle Deek? Nespresso or 3-in-1? The Development of Sociological Thinking  The Development of Sociological Thinking Facts show that things occur, and sometimes how they occur Theories are needed to understand why they occur Theories involve “constructing abstract interpretations that can be used to explain a wide variety of empirical situations” Not possible completely to separate research and theory  The Development of Sociological Thinking The origins of systematic studies of social life lie in a series of sweeping changes ushered in by the French Revolution of 1789 and the mid-18th century Industrial Revolution in Europe These events shattered older, traditional ways of life; and the founders of sociology looked to understand how such radical changes had come about. In doing so, they developed more systematic and scientific ways of looking at society, which challenged conventional religious beliefs.  The Development of Sociological Thinking Three basic questions were asked: (a) what is human nature? (b) why is society structured as it is? (c) how and why do societies change? Auguste Comte (1798-1857)  Auguste Comte (1798-1857) Although no single person can found a whole field of study; Comte is considered the founding “father” of “western” sociology He coined the term ‘sociology’(vs. “social physics”) in age of turbulent post-revolutionary France Believed in science of society that could reveal laws of social world, just as in natural science Finding laws that govern human societies could help us to shape our destiny and improve the welfare of humanity  Auguste Comte (1798-1857) Comte wanted sociology to become a positive science that would use same rigorous methods as astronomers and chemists. ‘Positivism’ is a doctrine which says that science should be concerned only with observable entities that are known to experience, like the natural sciences. Objective knowledge about society can be produced through careful observation, comparison and experimentation. By understanding the causal relationships between events, scientists can then predict how future events will occur  Auguste Comte (1798-1857) Comte argued that efforts to understand the world have passed through 3 stages: 1.Theological Stage: thinking was guided by religious ideas and the belief that society was an expression of God’s will 2.Metaphysical Stage: society came to be seen in natural, not supernatural terms. 3.Positive Stage: encouraged the application of scientific methods to study society. → Comte regarded sociology as the last science to develop, but the most significant and complex  Auguste Comte (1798-1857) Later in his career, Comte was concerned with the inequalities produced by industrialization and the threat they posed to social cohesion. In his view, the solution was the production of moral consensus through a new “religion of humanity” to hold society together. Although Comte’s view was never realized, his contribution in founding a science of society was important to the later professionalization of sociology as an academic discipline Emile Durkheim (1858-1917)  Emile Durkheim (1858-1917) Durkheim believed that we should ‘study social facts as things!’ By this he meant that social institutions have a hard, objective reality that enables them to be analyzed as rigorously as objects in the natural world. Social facts are all those institutions and rules of action which constrain or channel human behaviour. For the individual, they feel an external pressure, though most of the time they are simply taken for granted as natural or normal parts of life. Ex: monetary system, language…  Emile Durkheim (1858-1917) Durkheim used the concept of social facts to explain why some countries have higher suicide rates than others. → effect of marriage, religion, divorce, social class, etc. on happiness and depression He was interested in the changing nature of solidarity (what binds society together: integration through shared values and customs) In The Division of Labour in Society (1893), Durkheim argued that the advent of the industrial age also led to a new type of solidarity  Emile Durkheim (1858-1917) Older cultures with a low division of labour (specialized roles such as work occupation) are characterized by mechanical solidarity: most people are involved in similar occupation and share same beliefs. With industrialization and the expansion of cities, higher division of labour broke down mechanical forms of solidarity. With the increasing specialization of tasks and roles a new type of organic solidarity was created. Like the human “organic” body, each part or organ depends on all the others if the whole society or body is to function properly.  Emile Durkheim (1858-1917) Durkheim thought that social change in the modern world was so rapid and intense that major difficulties arose As societies change, so do lifestyles, morals, beliefs and accepted behaviour patterns. But when change is rapid and continuous, the old values lose their grip on people without any new ones becoming established. Durkheim called such an unsettling condition anomie Anomie is a deep feeling of aimlessness, dread and despair, as many people are left perceiving that their lives lack meaning and structure → the absence of norms (ex: suicide, divorce, etc.) Durkheim’s Types of Suicide Examples Altruistic suicide: Suicide bomber Egoistic suicide: Social outcast Anomic suicide: Financial loss Fatalistic suicide: Imprisoned Karl Marx (1818-1883)  Karl Marx (1818-1883) Marx was preoccupied with the understanding of changes associated with the Industrial Revolution; but he didn’t see the world like Comte, Durkheim and Weber. Much of his work focused on the development of capitalism: a system of production that contrasts radically with all previous economic systems (primitive (hunter&gatherer) & feudal). He focused on economic and political issues, yet produced sociological analyses through the connection of economic problems with social institutions  Karl Marx (1818-1883) Two main element within the capitalist enterprise: 1) Capital – any asset (money, machine..) that can be used or invested to make future assets 2) Wage-labour – the pool of workers who do not own the means of production but must find employment provided by the owners of capital  Karl Marx (1818-1883) Marx argued that those who own capital – capitalists – form a ruling class, while the mass of the population make up a class of waged workers – the working class. He called the industrial working class: proletariat Marx believed that capitalism is a class system in which relations between the two main classes are characterized by conflict  Karl Marx (1818-1883) Marx saw conflict between classes as the motivation for historical development; they are “the motor of history” Materialist conception of history – economic influences drive social change Final stage achieved through inevitable workers’ revolution to abolish the large-scale divisions between owners and workers: this stage is called communism He did not mean that all inequalities will disappear, but the economic system would be under communal ownership and a more human and egalitarian society will emerge  Karl Marx (1818-1883) Marx’s ideas had a far-reaching effect on the 20th century. Communist parties were established almost in every country. Until only a generation ago, more than a third of the world population lived in societies whose governments derived inspiration from Marx’s ideas With the fall of the USSR, communism has lost ground; but Marx’s ideas have re-emerged recently with movements like Occupy Wall Street which consider capitalism to be crisis. Max Weber (1864-1920)  Max Weber (1864-1920) Weber was also interested in the development of capitalism and the modern industrial societies. However, he saw class conflict as less significant than did Marx. In Weber’s view, economic factors are important, but ideas and values can also help to bring about social change.  Max Weber (1864-1920) In his famous work, The Protestant Ethic and the Spirit of Capitalism (1904), he proposes that religious values – especially Puritanism – were fundamental in creating capitalism. Unlike previous sociologists, Weber considers that sociologists should study social actions – not structure. Focus on the subjectively meaningful actions of people.  Max Weber (1864-1920) The ideal type is a hypothetical construction that has become a central part of Weber’s sociological toolbox. It is constructed by emphasizing certain traits of a given social item into an analytical model which does not necessarily exist anywhere in reality. The traits are not necessarily desirable ones. Example: bureaucratic organization or terrorist groups  Max Weber (1864-1920) Weber saw that modernization was accompanied by a shift away from traditional beliefs grounded in superstition, religion and customs; and an emergence of rationalization, instrumental calculations and increased efficiency through bureauracy. Rationalization: A blend of science, technology and bureaucratic organization, all directed towards the achievement of greater efficiency. However, Weber saw that rationalization had its dark side: It could crush the human spirit by over- regulating all aspects of life Modern theoretical approaches Functionalism Conflict theory Symbolic interactionism Useful to think of different levels of analysis: micro-sociology and macro-sociology  Theoretical Traditions in Sociology As we have seen, the classical founders of sociology – Comte, Durkheim, Marx and Weber – adopted different approaches to their studies: 1) Comte and Durkheim: emphasized the coercive strength of social forces in generating shared values and consensus → Functionalism 2) Marx: also saw social structures as highly significant, but argued that conflict and inequality were endemic in all societies → Conflict theory 3) Weber: focused attention on the meaningful character of social life and the social actions of individuals → social action or “interactionist” approach  Functionalism https://www.khanacademy.org/test- prep/mcat/society-and-culture/social- structures/v/functionalism  Functionalism Functionalism holds that society is a complex system whose various parts work together to produce stability and that sociology should investigate their relationships Functionalists, including Comte and Durkheim, have often used organic analogy, comparing the operation of society to a living organism. They argue that the parts of society work together, just as the various parts of the human body do, for the benefit of society as a whole. Example: education  Functionalism Functionalism emphasizes the importance of moral consensus in maintaining order and stability: most people should share the same values. Order and balance are considered the normal state of society (eg: religion leads to social cohesion). Until the 1960s, functionalism was the leading theoretical tradition in sociology, especially in the US.  Functionalism Talcott Parsons (1902-79) and Robert Merton (1910- 2003) were the most prominent functionalists. Merton was particularly influential since he distinguished between manifest and latent functions. 1. Manifest functions: those known to, and intended by, the participants in a specific type of social activity 2. Latent functions: are consequences of that activity of which the participants are unaware. Ex: Christmas commemorates Christ (manifest function) + brings families together and cultivates Christian identity (latent functions).  Functionalism Merton also distinguished between functions and dysfunctions To look for the dysfunctional aspects of social behavior means focusing on features of social life that challenge the existing order of things Ex: religion does not always lead to social cohesion; it can lead to conflict & social disruption when disagreements arise like Sunni-Shia; Catholic-Protestant  Criticisms of Functionalism Since the 1980s the popularity of functionalism has decreased as its limitations became apparent. Apart from Merton, all other functionalists have focused on stability and social order, minimizing social divisions and inequalities (race, class, gender). Functionalists often wrote as though whole societies have “needs” and “purposes”, even though these concepts make sense only when applied to individual human beings.  Conflict Theory https://www.khanacademy.org/test- prep/mcat/society-and-culture/social- structures/v/conflict-theory  Conflict theories Like functionalists, conflict theorists emphasize the importance of social structures; however, they reject functionalism’s emphasis on consensus and stability. Instead, they highlight the importance of division in society; and thus concentrate on issues of power, inequality and competitive struggle. They tend to see society as composed of distinct groups, each pursuing its own interests, which means the potential for conflict is always present. They examine the tensions between dominant and disadvantaged groups, looking to understand how relationships of control are established and maintained.  Conflict theories It is important to note that not all conflict theorists are Marxist. Ex: feminists focus on gender inequality, not class inequality. The conflict tradition in sociology has benefited from feminist research and theorizing. Combining macro- and micro-level studies has shown that evidence of structured inequality can be found in the private sphere of social life every bit as much as in large structures. The 1970’s feminist slogan “the personal is political” adequately summarizes why sociology cannot ignore the personal aspects of our everyday lives.  Symbolic Interactionism https://www.khanacademy.org/test- prep/mcat/society-and-culture/social- structures/v/symbolic-interactionism  Symbolic Interactionism Weber’s social action approach inspired many “interactionist” forms of sociology. One of the most influential has been symbolic interactionism, which owes much to the American social philosopher George Herbert Mead (1863-1931). Symbolic interactionism springs from the concern with language and meaning. Mead argues that language allows us to become self- conscious beings – aware of our own individuality and able to see ourselves “as others see us”. The key element in this process is the symbol.  Symbolic Interactionism Symbolic interactionism directs our attention to the details of interpersonal interaction and how that detail is used to make sense of what others say or do. The focus is often on face-to-face interations in the context of everyday life; and the role of interactions in creating society and institutions. Max Weber was an important indirect influence on this theoretical approach because, although he acknowledged the existence of social structures, he held that these were created through the actions of individuals.  Symbolic Interactionism Criticism: while the symbolic interactionist perspective has yielded many insights into the nature of our actions during day-to-day social life, it has been criticized for ignoring the larger issues of power and social structures and how they serve to constrain individual action.  Levels of Analysis: Macro & Micro- Sociology https://www.khanacademy.org/test-prep/mcat/society-and- culture/social-structures/v/macrosociology-vs-microsociology Micro (individual) & macro (structures) sociology are complementary. Most applied sociological analysis happens at the meso-level (group-level); where we see the influence of both the macro and micro level phenomena.  Sociology: What for? Allows us to appreciate different perspectives and understand different societies Practical help in evaluating policy initiatives Practical careers like planning, social work, management, journalism, policy consulting Provides self-enlightenment and help control our own lives  Burawoy’s 4 Types of Sociology Professional Sociology: scientific, university-based, provides academic careers Policy Sociology: studies with goals defined by client (funding body or government) Critical Sociology: “the conscience of professional sociology”, point out the flawed assumptions of professional and policy sociology, ex: feminist theory Public Sociology: rooted in dialogue, speak with social groups (unions, movements, faith groups, etc.) & more politically engaged  Public and Professional Sociology In 2004, the president of the ASA, Michael Burawoy, argued for a new “public sociology” that would forge relationships with audiences beyond universities. He said that the professionalization of sociology in the 20th century has been beneficial, but it has also led to sociologists talking more to each other than to the public “out there”.  Critics of Burawoy Much of today’s professional sociology already tries hard to engage with participants and outside audiences There is a lot of overlap between the 4 types (eg: feminist theory can be both critical and professional) Danger that sociology will become subordinated to the political motives of activist groups Despite criticism, the argument that professional sociology is not engaged enough with public concerns is valid and has been welcomed by most in the field.  Next Week? Ch. 2 Asking and Answering Sociological Questions