Physics for Scientists and Engineers PDF

Physics for Scientists and Engineers Introduction and Chapter 1 – Physics and Measurements Physics Fundamental Science  Concerned with the fundamental principles of the Universe  Foundation of other physical sciences  Has simplicity of fundamental concepts...

Physics for Scientists and Engineers Introduction and Chapter 1 – Physics and Measurements Physics Fundamental Science  Concerned with the fundamental principles of the Universe  Foundation of other physical sciences  Has simplicity of fundamental concepts Introduction Physics, cont. Divided into six major areas:  Classical Mechanics  Relativity  Thermodynamics  Electromagnetism  Optics  Quantum Mechanics Introduction Classical Physics Mechanics and electromagnetism are basic to all other branches of classical and modern physics. Classical physics  Developed before 1900  First part of text deals with Classical Mechanics  Also called Newtonian Mechanics or Mechanics Modern physics  From about 1900 to the present Introduction Objectives of Physics To find the limited number of fundamental laws that govern natural phenomena To use these laws to develop theories that can predict the results of future experiments Express the laws in the language of mathematics  Mathematics provides the bridge between theory and experiment. Introduction Theory and Experiments Should complement each other When a discrepancy occurs, theory may be modified or new theories formulated.  A theory may apply to limited conditions.  Example: Newtonian Mechanics is confined to objects traveling slowly with respect to the speed of light.  Try to develop a more general theory Introduction Classical Physics Overview Classical physics includes principles in many branches developed before 1900. Mechanics  Major developments by Newton, and continuing through the 18th century Thermodynamics, optics and electromagnetism  Developed in the latter part of the 19th century  Apparatus for controlled experiments became available Introduction Modern Physics Began near the end of the 19th century Phenomena that could not be explained by classical physics Includes theories of relativity and quantum mechanics Introduction Special Relativity Correctly describes motion of objects moving near the speed of light Modifies the traditional concepts of space, time, and energy Shows the speed of light is the upper limit for the speed of an object Shows mass and energy are related Introduction Quantum Mechanics Formulated to describe physical phenomena at the atomic level Led to the development of many practical devices Introduction Measurements Used to describe natural phenomena Each measurement is associated with a physical quantity Need defined standards Characteristics of standards for measurements  Readily accessible  Possess some property that can be measured reliably  Must yield the same results when used by anyone anywhere  Cannot change with time Section 1.1 Standards of Fundamental Quantities Standardized systems  Agreed upon by some authority, usually a governmental body SI – Systéme International  Agreed to in 1960 by an international committee  Main system used in this text Section 1.1 Fundamental Quantities and Their Units Quantity SI Unit Length meter Mass kilogram Time second Temperature Kelvin Electric Current Ampere Luminous Intensity Candela Amount of Substance mole Section 1.1 Quantities Used in Mechanics In mechanics, three fundamental quantities are used:  Length  Mass  Time All other quantities in mechanics can be expressed in terms of the three fundamental quantities. Section 1.1 Length Length is the distance between two points in space. Units  SI – meter, m Defined in terms of a meter – the distance traveled by light in a vacuum during a given time See Table 1.1 for some examples of lengths. Section 1.1 Mass Units  SI – kilogram, kg Defined in terms of a kilogram, based on a specific cylinder kept at the International Bureau of Standards See Table 1.2 for masses of various objects. Section 1.1 Standard Kilogram Section 1.1 Time Units  seconds, s Defined in terms of the oscillation of radiation from a cesium atom See Table 1.3 for some approximate time intervals. Section 1.1 Reasonableness of Results When solving a problem, you need to check your answer to see if it seems reasonable. Reviewing the tables of approximate values for length, mass, and time will help you test for reasonableness. Section 1.1 Number Notation When writing out numbers with many digits, spacing in groups of three will be used.  No commas  Standard international notation Examples:  25 100  5.123 456 789 12 Section 1.1 US Customary System Still used in the US, but text will use SI Quantity Unit Length foot Mass slug Time second Section 1.1 Prefixes Prefixes correspond to powers of 10. Each prefix has a specific name. Each prefix has a specific abbreviation. The prefixes can be used with any basic units. They are multipliers of the basic unit. Examples:  1 mm = 10-3 m  1 mg = 10-3 g Section 1.1 Prefixes, cont. Section 1.1 Fundamental and Derived Units Derived quantities can be expressed as a mathematical combination of fundamental quantities. Examples:  Area  A product of two lengths  Speed  A ratio of a length to a time interval  Density  A ratio of mass to volume Section 1.1 Model Building A model is a system of physical components.  Useful when you cannot interact directly with the phenomenon  Identifies the physical components  Makes predictions about the behavior of the system  The predictions will be based on interactions among the components and/or  Based on the interactions between the components and the environment Section 1.2 Models of Matter Some Greeks thought matter is made of atoms.  No additional structure JJ Thomson (1897) found electrons and showed atoms had structure. Rutherford (1911) determined a central nucleus surrounded by electrons. Section 1.2 Models of Matter, cont. Nucleus has structure, containing protons and neutrons  Number of protons gives atomic number  Number of protons and neutrons gives mass number Protons and neutrons are made up of quarks. Section 1.2 Models of Matter, final Quarks  Six varieties  Up, down, strange, charmed, bottom, top  Fractional electric charges  +⅔ of a proton  Up, charmed, top  ⅓ of a proton  Down, strange, bottom Section 1.2 Modeling Technique An important problem-solving technique is to build a model for a problem.  Identify a system of physical components for the problem  Make predictions of the behavior of the system based on the interactions among the components and/or the components and the environment Section 1.2 Basic Quantities and Their Dimension Dimension has a specific meaning – it denotes the physical nature of a quantity. Dimensions are often denoted with square brackets.  Length [L]  Mass [M]  Time [T] Section 1.3 Dimensions and Units Each dimension can have many actual units. Table 1.5 for the dimensions and units of some derived quantities Section 1.3 Dimensional Analysis Technique to check the correctness of an equation or to assist in deriving an equation Dimensions (length, mass, time, combinations) can be treated as algebraic quantities.  Add, subtract, multiply, divide Both sides of equation must have the same dimensions. Any relationship can be correct only if the dimensions on both sides of the equation are the same. Cannot give numerical factors: this is its limitation Section 1.3 Dimensional Analysis, example Given the equation: x = ½ at 2 Check dimensions on each side: L L  T2  L T 2 The T2’s cancel, leaving L for the dimensions of each side.  The equation is dimensionally correct.  There are no dimensions for the constant. Section 1.3 Dimensional Analysis to Determine a Power Law Determine powers in a proportionality  Example: find the exponents in the expression x  a mt n  You must have lengths on both sides.  Acceleration has dimensions of L/T2  Time has dimensions of T.  Analysis gives x  at 2 Section 1.3 Symbols The symbol used in an equation is not necessarily the symbol used for its dimension. Some quantities have one symbol used consistently.  For example, time is t virtually all the time. Some quantities have many symbols used, depending upon the specific situation.  For example, lengths may be x, y, z, r, d, h, etc. The dimensions will be given with a capitalized, non-italic letter. The algebraic symbol will be italicized. Section 1.3 Conversion of Units When units are not consistent, you may need to convert to appropriate ones. See Appendix A for an extensive list of conversion factors. Units can be treated like algebraic quantities that can cancel each other out. Section 1.4 Conversion Always include units for every quantity, you can carry the units through the entire calculation.  Will help detect possible errors Multiply original value by a ratio equal to one. Example: 15.0 in  ? cm  2.54 cm  15.0 in    38.1cm  1in   Note the value inside the parentheses is equal to 1, since 1 inch is defined as 2.54 cm. Section 1.4 Order of Magnitude Approximation based on a number of assumptions  May need to modify assumptions if more precise results are needed The order of magnitude is the power of 10 that applies. Section 1.5 Order of Magnitude – Process Estimate a number and express it in scientific notation.  The multiplier of the power of 10 needs to be between 1 and 10. Compare the multiplier to 3.162 ( 10 )  If the remainder is less than 3.162, the order of magnitude is the power of 10 in the scientific notation.  If the remainder is greater than 3.162, the order of magnitude is one more than the power of 10 in the scientific notation. Section 1.5 Using Order of Magnitude Estimating too high for one number is often canceled by estimating too low for another number.  The resulting order of magnitude is generally reliable within about a factor of 10. Working the problem allows you to drop digits, make reasonable approximations and simplify approximations. With practice, your results will become better and better. Section 1.5 Uncertainty in Measurements There is uncertainty in every measurement – this uncertainty carries over through the calculations.  May be due to the apparatus, the experimenter, and/or the number of measurements made  Need a technique to account for this uncertainty We will use rules for significant figures to approximate the uncertainty in results of calculations. Section 1.6 Significant Figures A significant figure is one that is reliably known. Zeros may or may not be significant.  Those used to position the decimal point are not significant.  To remove ambiguity, use scientific notation. In a measurement, the significant figures include the first estimated digit. Section 1.6 Significant Figures, examples 0.0075 m has 2 significant figures  The leading zeros are placeholders only.  Write the value in scientific notation to show more clearly: 7.5 x 10-3 m for 2 significant figures 10.0 m has 3 significant figures  The decimal point gives information about the reliability of the measurement. 1500 m is ambiguous  Use 1.5 x 103 m for 2 significant figures  Use 1.50 x 103 m for 3 significant figures  Use 1.500 x 103 m for 4 significant figures Section 1.6 Operations with Significant Figures – Multiplying or Dividing When multiplying or dividing several quantities, the number of significant figures in the final answer is the same as the number of significant figures in the quantity having the smallest number of significant figures. Example: 25.57 m x 2.45 m = 62.6 m2  The 2.45 m limits your result to 3 significant figures. Section 1.6 Operations with Significant Figures – Adding or Subtracting When adding or subtracting, the number of decimal places in the result should equal the smallest number of decimal places in any term in the sum or difference. Example: 135 cm + 3.25 cm = 138 cm  The 135 cm limits your answer to the units decimal value. Section 1.6 Operations With Significant Figures – Summary The rule for addition and subtraction are different than the rule for multiplication and division. For adding and subtracting, the number of decimal places is the important consideration. For multiplying and dividing, the number of significant figures is the important consideration. Section 1.6 Significant Figures in the Text Most of the numerical examples and end-of-chapter problems will yield answers having three significant figures. When estimating a calculation, typically work with one significant figure. Section 1.6 Rounding Last retained digit is increased by 1 if the last digit dropped is greater than 5. Last retained digit remains as it is if the last digit dropped is less than 5. If the last digit dropped is equal to 5, the retained digit should be rounded to the nearest even number. Saving rounding until the final result will help eliminate accumulation of errors. It is useful to perform the solution in algebraic form and wait until the end to enter numerical values.  This saves keystrokes as well as minimizes rounding. Section 1.6