Chapter 1 Introduction PDF

Chapter 1: Introduction Operating System Concepts – 10h Edition Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2018  Chapter 1: Introduction ▪ What Operating Systems Do ▪ Computer-System Organization ▪ Computer-System Architecture ▪...

Chapter 1: Introduction Operating System Concepts – 10h Edition Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2018  Chapter 1: Introduction ▪ What Operating Systems Do ▪ Computer-System Organization ▪ Computer-System Architecture ▪ Operating-System Operations ▪ Resource Management ▪ Security and Protection ▪ Virtualization ▪ Distributed Systems ▪ Kernel Data Structures ▪ Computing Environments ▪ Free/Libre and Open-Source Operating Systems Operating System Concepts – 10th Edition 1.2 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2018  Objectives ▪ Describe the general organization of a computer system and the role of interrupts ▪ Describe the components in a modern, multiprocessor computer system ▪ Illustrate the transition from user mode to kernel mode ▪ Discuss how operating systems are used in various computing environments ▪ Provide examples of free and open-source operating systems Operating System Concepts – 10th Edition 1.3 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2018  Overview of Computer System Structure Operating System Concepts – 10th Edition 1.4 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2018  Abstract View of Components of Computer Operating System Concepts – 10th Edition 1.5 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2018  Computer System Structure ▪ Computer system can be divided into four components: Hardware – provides basic computing resources  CPU, memory, I/O devices Operating system  Controls and coordinates use of hardware among various applications and users Application programs – define the ways in which the system resources are used to solve the computing problems of the users  Word processors, compilers, web browsers, database systems, video games Users  People, machines, other computers Operating System Concepts – 10th Edition 1.6 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2018  Types of computer systems ▪ Depends on the point of view ▪ Users want convenience, ease of use and good performance Don’t care about resource utilization ▪ But shared computer such as mainframe or minicomputer must keep all users happy Operating system is a resource allocator and control program making efficient use of HW and managing execution of user programs ▪ Users of dedicate systems such as workstations have dedicated resources but frequently use shared resources from servers ▪ Mobile devices like smartphones and tables are resource poor, optimized for usability and battery life Mobile user interfaces such as touch screens, voice recognition ▪ Some computers have little or no user interface, such as embedded computers in devices and automobiles Run primarily without user intervention Operating System Concepts – 10th Edition 1.7 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2018  What Does the Term Operating System Mean? ▪ An operating system is “fill in the blanks” ▪ What about: Car Airplane Printer Washing Machine Toaster Compiler Etc. Operating System Concepts – 10th Edition 1.8 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2018  What is an Operating System? ▪ A program that acts as an intermediary between a user of a computer and the computer hardware ▪ Operating system goals: Execute user programs and make solving user problems easier Make the computer system convenient to use Use the computer hardware in an efficient manner Operating System Concepts – 10th Edition 1.9 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2018  Operating System Definition ▪ No universally accepted definition ▪ “Everything a vendor ships when you order an operating system” is a good approximation But varies wildly ▪ “The one program running at all times on the computer” is the kernel, part of the operating system ▪ Everything else is either A system program (ships with the operating system, but not part of the kernel) , or An application program, all programs not associated with the operating system ▪ Today’s OSes for general purpose and mobile computing also include middleware – a set of software frameworks that provide addition services to application developers such as databases, multimedia, graphics Operating System Concepts – 10th Edition 1.10 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2018  Computer System Organization ▪ Computer-system operation One or more CPUs, device controllers connect through common bus providing access to shared memory Concurrent execution of CPUs and devices competing for memory cycles Operating System Concepts – 10th Edition 1.12 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2018  Interrupts ▪ Interrupt transfers control to the interrupt service routine generally, through the interrupt vector, which contains the addresses of all the service routines ▪ Interrupt architecture must save the address of the interrupted instruction ▪ A trap or exception is a software-generated interrupt caused either by an error or a user request ▪ An operating system is interrupt driven Operating System Concepts – 10th Edition 1.13 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2018  Interrupt Handling ▪ The operating system preserves the state of the CPU by storing the registers and the program counter ▪ Determines which type of interrupt has occurred: ▪ Separate segments of code determine what action should be taken for each type of interrupt Operating System Concepts – 10th Edition 1.14 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2018  Interrupt-drive I/O Cycle Operating System Concepts – 10th Edition 1.15 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2018  Computer-System Operation ▪ I/O devices and the CPU can execute concurrently ▪ Each device controller is in charge of a particular device type ▪ Each device controller has a local buffer ▪ Each device controller type has an operating system device driver to manage it ▪ CPU moves data from/to main memory to/from local buffers ▪ I/O is from the device to local buffer of controller ▪ Device controller informs CPU that it has finished its operation by causing an interrupt Operating System Concepts – 10th Edition 1.16 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2018  I/O Structure ▪ Two methods for handling I/O After I/O starts, control returns to user program only upon I/O completion After I/O starts, control returns to user program without waiting for I/O completion Operating System Concepts – 10th Edition 1.17 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2018  I/O Structure (Cont.) ▪ After I/O starts, control returns to user program only upon I/O completion Wait instruction idles the CPU until the next interrupt Wait loop (contention for memory access) At most one I/O request is outstanding at a time, no simultaneous I/O processing ▪ After I/O starts, control returns to user program without waiting for I/O completion System call – request to the OS to allow user to wait for I/O completion Device-status table contains entry for each I/O device indicating its type, address, and state OS indexes into I/O device table to determine device status and to modify table entry to include interrupt Operating System Concepts – 10th Edition 1.18 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2018  Storage Structure Operating System Concepts – 10th Edition 1.19 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2018  Storage Definitions and Notation Review The basic unit of computer storage is the bit. A bit can contain one of two values, 0 and 1. All other storage in a computer is based on collections of bits. Given enough bits, it is amazing how many things a computer can represent: numbers, letters, images, movies, sounds, documents, and programs, to name a few. A byte is 8 bits, and on most computers it is the smallest convenient chunk of storage. For example, most computers don’t have an instruction to move a bit but do have one to move a byte. A less common term is word, which is a given computer architecture’s native unit of data. A word is made up of one or more bytes. For example, a computer that has 64-bit registers and 64-bit memory addressing typically has 64-bit (8-byte) words. A computer executes many operations in its native word size rather than a byte at a time. Computer storage, along with most computer throughput, is generally measured and manipulated in bytes and collections of bytes. A kilobyte , or KB , is 1,024 bytes; a megabyte , or MB , is 1,0242 bytes; a gigabyte , or GB , is 1,0243 bytes; a terabyte , or TB , is 1,0244 bytes; and a petabyte , or PB , is 1,0245 bytes. Computer manufacturers often round off these numbers and say that a megabyte is 1 million bytes and a gigabyte is 1 billion bytes. Networking measurements are an exception to this general rule; they are given in bits (because networks move data a bit at a time). Operating System Concepts – 10th Edition 1.20 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2018  Storage Structure ▪ Main memory – only large storage media that the CPU can access directly Random access Typically volatile Typically random-access memory in the form of Dynamic Random-access Memory (DRAM) ▪ Secondary storage – extension of main memory that provides large nonvolatile storage capacity Operating System Concepts – 10th Edition 1.21 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2018  Storage Structure (Cont.) ▪ Hard Disk Drives (HDD) – rigid metal or glass platters covered with magnetic recording material Disk surface is logically divided into tracks, which are subdivided into sectors The disk controller determines the logical interaction between the device and the computer ▪ Non-volatile memory (NVM) devices– faster than hard disks, nonvolatile ▪ SSD(Solid State Disk) is (NVM) Various technologies Becoming more popular as capacity and performance increases, price drops Operating System Concepts – 10th Edition 1.22 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2018  Storage-Device Hierarchy Operating System Concepts – 10th Edition 1.23 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2018  Storage Hierarchy ▪ Storage systems organized in hierarchy Speed Cost Volatility ▪ Caching – copying information into faster storage system; main memory can be viewed as a cache for secondary storage ▪ Device Driver for each device controller to manage I/O Provides uniform interface between controller and kernel Operating System Concepts – 10th Edition 1.24 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2018  Caching ▪ Important principle, performed at many levels in a computer (in hardware, operating system, software) ▪ Information in use copied from slower to faster storage temporarily ▪ Faster storage (cache) checked first to determine if information is there If it is, information used directly Judi!123 from the cache (fast) If not, data copied to cache and used there ▪ Cache smaller than storage being cached Cache management important design problem Cache size and replacement policy Operating System Concepts – 10th Edition 1.25 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2018  Direct Memory Access Structure ▪ Used for high-speed I/O devices able to transmit information at close to memory speeds ▪ Device controller transfers blocks of data from buffer storage directly to main memory without CPU intervention ▪ Only one interrupt is generated per block, rather than the one interrupt per byte Operating System Concepts – 10th Edition 1.26 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2018  How a Modern Computer Works A von Neumann architecture Operating System Concepts – 10th Edition 1.27 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2018  Computer System Architecture Operating System Concepts – 10th Edition 1.28 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2018  Computer-System Architecture ▪ Most systems use a single general-purpose processor Most systems have special-purpose processors as well ▪ Multiprocessors systems growing in use and importance Also known as parallel systems, tightly-coupled systems Advantages include: 1. Increased throughput 2. Economy of scale 3. Increased reliability – graceful degradation or fault tolerance Two types: 1. Asymmetric Multiprocessing – each processor is assigned a specie task. 2. Symmetric Multiprocessing – each processor performs all tasks Operating System Concepts – 10th Edition 1.29 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2018  Symmetric Multiprocessing Architecture Operating System Concepts – 10th Edition 1.30 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2018  Dual-Core Design ▪ Multi-chip and multicore ▪ Systems containing all chips Chassis containing multiple separate systems Operating System Concepts – 10th Edition 1.31 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2018  Clustered Systems ▪ Like multiprocessor systems, but multiple systems working together Usually sharing storage via a storage-area network (SAN) Provides a high-availability service which survives failures  Asymmetric clustering has one machine in hot-standby mode  Symmetric clustering has multiple nodes running applications, monitoring each other Some clusters are for high-performance computing (HPC)  Applications must be written to use parallelization Some have distributed lock manager (DLM) to avoid conflicting operations Operating System Concepts – 10th Edition 1.32 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2018  Operating-System Structure Operating System Concepts – 10th Edition 1.33 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2018  Multiprogramming (Batch system) ▪ Single user cannot always keep CPU and I/O devices busy ▪ Multiprogramming organizes jobs (code and data) so CPU always has one to execute ▪ A subset of total jobs in system is kept in memory ▪ One job selected and run via job scheduling ▪ When job has to wait (for I/O for example), OS switches to another job Operating System Concepts – 10th Edition 1.34 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2018  Multitasking (Timesharing) ▪ A logical extension of Batch systems– the CPU switches jobs so frequently that users can interact with each job while it is running, creating interactive computing Response time should be < 1 second Each user has at least one program executing in memory process If several jobs ready to run at the same time  CPU scheduling If processes don’t fit in memory, swapping moves them in and out to run Virtual memory allows execution of processes not completely in memory Operating System Concepts – 10th Edition 1.35 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2018  Memory Layout for Multiprogrammed System Operating System Concepts – 10th Edition 1.36 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2018  Operating System Operation ▪ Dual-mode operation allows OS to protect itself and other system components User mode and kernel mode ▪ Mode bit provided by hardware Provides ability to distinguish when system is running user code or kernel code. When a user is running ➔ mode bit is “user” When kernel code is executing ➔ mode bit is “kernel” ▪ How do we guarantee that user does not explicitly set the mode bit to “kernel”? System call changes mode to kernel, return from call resets it to user ▪ Some instructions designated as privileged, only executable in kernel mode Operating System Concepts – 10th Edition 1.37 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2018  Transition from User to Kernel Mode Operating System Concepts – 10th Edition 1.38 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2018  Process Management ▪ A process is a program in execution. It is a unit of work within the system. Program is a passive entity; process is an active entity. ▪ Process needs resources to accomplish its task CPU, memory, I/O, files Initialization data ▪ Process termination requires reclaim of any reusable resources ▪ Single-threaded process has one program counter specifying location of next instruction to execute Process executes instructions sequentially, one at a time, until completion ▪ Multi-threaded process has one program counter per thread ▪ Typically system has many processes, some user, some operating system running concurrently on one or more CPUs Concurrency by multiplexing the CPUs among the processes / threads Operating System Concepts – 10th Edition 1.39 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2018  Process Management Activities The operating system is responsible for the following activities in connection with process management: ▪ Creating and deleting both user and system processes ▪ Suspending and resuming processes ▪ Providing mechanisms for process synchronization ▪ Providing mechanisms for process communication ▪ Providing mechanisms for deadlock handling Operating System Concepts – 10th Edition 1.40 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2018  Memory Management ▪ To execute a program all (or part) of the instructions must be in memory ▪ All (or part) of the data that is needed by the program must be in memory ▪ Memory management determines what is in memory and when Optimizing CPU utilization and computer response to users ▪ Memory management activities Keeping track of which parts of memory are currently being used and by whom Deciding which processes (or parts thereof) and data to move into and out of memory Allocating and deallocating memory space as needed Operating System Concepts – 10th Edition 1.41 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2018  Stroage Management ▪ OS provides uniform, logical view of information storage Abstracts physical properties to logical storage unit - file Each medium is controlled by device (i.e., disk drive, tape drive)  Varying properties include access speed, capacity, data- transfer rate, access method (sequential or random) ▪ File-System management Files usually organized into directories Access control on most systems to determine who can access what OS activities include  Creating and deleting files and directories  Primitives to manipulate files and directories  Mapping files onto secondary storage  Backup files onto stable (non-volatile) storage media Operating System Concepts – 10th Edition 1.42 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2018  Mass-Storage Management ▪ Usually disks used to store data that does not fit in main memory or data that must be kept for a “long” period of time ▪ Proper management is of central importance ▪ Entire speed of computer operation hinges on disk subsystem and its algorithms ▪ OS activities Mounting and unmounting Free-space management Storage allocation Disk scheduling Partitioning Protection Operating System Concepts – 10th Edition 1.43 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2018  Characteristics of Various Types of Storage Movement between levels of storage hierarchy can be explicit or implicit Operating System Concepts – 10th Edition 1.44 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2018  Timer ▪ Timer to prevent infinite loop (or process hogging resources) Timer is set to interrupt the computer after some time period Keep a counter that is decremented by the physical clock Operating system set the counter (privileged instruction) When counter zero generate an interrupt Set up before scheduling process to regain control or terminate program that exceeds allotted time Operating System Concepts – 10th Edition 1.45 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2018  Migration of data “A” from Disk to Register ▪ Multitasking environments must be careful to use most recent value, no matter where it is stored in the storage hierarchy ▪ Multiprocessor environment must provide cache coherency in hardware such that all CPUs have the most recent value in their cache ▪ Distributed environment situation even more complex Several copies of a datum can exist Various solutions covered in Chapter 19 Operating System Concepts – 10th Edition 1.46 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2018  I/O Subsystem ▪ One purpose of OS is to hide peculiarities of hardware devices from the user ▪ I/O subsystem responsible for Memory management of I/O including buffering (storing data temporarily while it is being transferred), caching (storing parts of data in faster storage for performance), spooling (the overlapping of output of one job with input of other jobs) General device-driver interface Drivers for specific hardware devices Operating System Concepts – 10th Edition 1.47 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2018  Protection and Security ▪ Protection – any mechanism for controlling access of processes or users to resources defined by the OS ▪ Security – defense of the system against internal and external attacks Huge range, including denial-of-service, worms, viruses, identity theft, theft of service ▪ Systems generally first distinguish among users, to determine who can do what User identities (user IDs, security IDs) include name and associated number, one per user User ID then associated with all files, processes of that user to determine access control Group identifier (group ID) allows set of users to be defined and controls managed, then also associated with each process, file Privilege escalation allows user to change to effective ID with more rights Operating System Concepts – 10th Edition 1.48 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2018  Kernel Data Structures Many similar to standard programming data structures Singly linked list Doubly linked list Circular linked list Operating System Concepts – 10th Edition 1.49 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2018  Kernel Data Structures ▪ Binary search tree left