Computer Organization and Architecture PDF

+ William Stallings Computer Organization and Architecture 10th Edition © 2016 Pearson Education, Inc., Hoboken, NJ. All rights reserved. + Chapter 1 Basic Concepts and Computer Evolution © 2016 Pearson Education, Inc., Hoboken, NJ...

+ William Stallings Computer Organization and Architecture 10th Edition © 2016 Pearson Education, Inc., Hoboken, NJ. All rights reserved. + Chapter 1 Basic Concepts and Computer Evolution © 2016 Pearson Education, Inc., Hoboken, NJ. All rights reserved.  Computer Architecture Computer Organization Attributes of a system Instruction set, number visible to the of bits used to programmer represent various data Have a direct impact types, I/O on the logical mechanisms, execution of a program techniques for addressing memory Architectural Computer attributes Architecture include: Organization Computer al attributes Organization include: Hardware details The operational units transparent to the and their programmer, control interconnections that signals, interfaces realize the between the computer architectural and peripherals, specifications memory technology used © 2016 Pearson Education, Inc., Hoboken, NJ. All rights reserved. + IBM System 370 Architecture IBM System/370 architecture Was introduced in 1970 Included a number of models Could upgrade to a more expensive, faster model without having to abandon original software New models are introduced with improved technology, but retain the same architecture so that the customer’s software investment is protected Architecture has survived to this day as the architecture of IBM’s mainframe product line © 2016 Pearson Education, Inc., Hoboken, NJ. All rights reserved. + Structure and Function Hierarchical system Structure Set of interrelated The way in which subsystems components relate to Hierarchical nature of each other complex systems is Function essential to both their design and their description The operation of individual components as Designer need only deal part of the structure with a particular level of the system at a time Concerned with structure and function at each level © 2016 Pearson Education, Inc., Hoboken, NJ. All rights reserved. + Function There are four basic functions that a computer can perform: Data processing Data may take a wide variety of forms and the range of processing requirements is broad Data storage Short-term Long-term Data movement Input-output (I/O) - when data are received from or delivered to a device (peripheral) that is directly connected to the computer Data communications – when data are moved over longer distances, to or from a remote device Control A control unit manages the computer’s resources and orchestrates the performance of its functional parts in response to instructions © 2016 Pearson Education, Inc., Hoboken, NJ. All rights reserved.  Structure © 2016 Pearson Education, Inc., Hoboken, NJ. All rights reserved. +  CPU – controls the operation of the computer There are four and performs its data main structural processing functions components of the  Main Memory – stores data computer:  I/O – moves data between the computer and its external environment  System Interconnection – some mechanism that provides for communication among CPU, main memory, and I/O © 2016 Pearson Education, Inc., Hoboken, NJ. All rights reserved. + Control Unit CPU Controls the operation of the CPU and hence the computer Major structural Arithmetic and Logic Unit (ALU) components: Performs the computer’s data processing function Registers Provide storage internal to the CPU CPU Interconnection Some mechanism that provides for communication among the control unit, ALU, and registers © 2016 Pearson Education, Inc., Hoboken, NJ. All rights reserved. + Multicore Computer Structure Central processing unit (CPU) Portion of the computer that fetches and executes instructions Consists of an ALU, a control unit, and registers Referred to as a processor in a system with a single processing unit Core An individual processing unit on a processor chip May be equivalent in functionality to a CPU on a single-CPU system Specialized processing units are also referred to as cores Processor A physical piece of silicon containing one or more cores Is the computer component that interprets and executes instructions Referred to as a multicore processor if it contains multiple cores © 2016 Pearson Education, Inc., Hoboken, NJ. All rights reserved. + Cache Memory Multiple layers of memory between the processor and main memory Is smaller and faster than main memory Used to speed up memory access by placing in the cache data from main memory that is likely to be used in the near future A greater performance improvement may be obtained by using multiple levels of cache, with level 1 (L1) closest to the core and additional levels (L2, L3, etc.) progressively farther from the core © 2016 Pearson Education, Inc., Hoboken, NJ. All rights reserved. © 2016 Pearson Education, Inc., Hoboken, NJ. All rights reserved.  + Figure 1.3 Motherboard with Two Intel Quad-Core Xeon Processors © 2016 Pearson Education, Inc., Hoboken, NJ. All rights reserved.  Figure 1.4 zEnterprise EC12 Processor Unit (PU) Chip Diagram © 2016 Pearson Education, Inc., Hoboken, NJ. All rights reserved.  Figure 1.5 zEnterprise EC12 Core Layout © 2016 Pearson Education, Inc., Hoboken, NJ. All rights reserved. + History of Computers First Generation: Vacuum Tubes Vacuum tubes were used for digital logic elements and memory IAS computer Fundamental design approach was the stored program concept Attributed to the mathematician John von Neumann First publication of the idea was in 1945 for the EDVAC Design began at the Princeton Institute for Advanced Studies Completed in 1952 Prototype of all subsequent general-purpose computers © 2016 Pearson Education, Inc., Hoboken, NJ. All rights reserved. © 2016 Pearson Education, Inc., Hoboken, NJ. All rights reserved. © 2016 Pearson Education, Inc., Hoboken, NJ. All rights reserved. + Registers Contains a word to be stored in memory or sent to the I/O Memory buffer unit register (MBR) Or is used to receive a word from memory or from the I/O unit Memory address Specifies the address in memory of the word to be written register (MAR) from or read into the MBR Instruction register Contains the 8-bit opcode instruction being executed (IR) Instruction buffer Employed to temporarily hold the right-hand instruction register (IBR) from a word in memory Program counter Contains the address of the next instruction pair to be (PC) fetched from memory Accumulator (AC) Employed to temporarily hold operands and results of ALU and multiplier operations quotient (MQ) © 2016 Pearson Education, Inc., Hoboken, NJ. All rights reserved. © 2016 Pearson Education, Inc., Hoboken, NJ. All rights reserved.  Table 1.1 The IAS Instruction Set (Table can be found on page 17 in the textbook.) © 2016 Pearson Education, Inc., Hoboken, NJ. All rights reserved. + History of Computers Second Generation: Transistors Smaller Cheaper Dissipates less heat than a vacuum tube Is a solid state device made from silicon Was invented at Bell Labs in 1947 It was not until the late 1950’s that fully transistorized computers were commercially available © 2016 Pearson Education, Inc., Hoboken, NJ. All rights reserved. + Table 1.2 Computer Generations © 2016 Pearson Education, Inc., Hoboken, NJ. All rights reserved. + Second Generation Computers Introduced: More complex arithmetic and logic units and control units The use of high-level programming languages Provision of system software which provided the ability to: Load programs Move data to peripherals Libraries perform common computations © 2016 Pearson Education, Inc., Hoboken, NJ. All rights reserved. © 2016 Pearson Education, Inc., Hoboken, NJ. All rights reserved.  History of Computers Third Generation: Integrated Circuits 1958 – the invention of the integrated circuit Discrete component Single, self-contained transistor Manufactured separately, packaged in their own containers, and soldered or wired together onto masonite-like circuit boards Manufacturing process was expensive and cumbersome The two most important members of the third generation were the IBM System/360 and the DEC PDP- 8 © 2016 Pearson Education, Inc., Hoboken, NJ. All rights reserved. © 2016 Pearson Education, Inc., Hoboken, NJ. All rights reserved. + A computer consists of Integrated gates, memory cells, and interconnections among Circuits these elements The gates and memory Data storage – provided by cells are constructed of memory cells simple digital electronic components Data processing – provided Exploits the fact that such by gates components as transistors, resistors, and conductors can be Data movement – the paths fabricated from a semiconductor among components are such as silicon used to move data from memory to memory and Many transistors can be produced from memory through gates at the same time on a single to memory wafer of silicon Control – the paths among Transistors can be connected components can carry with a processor metallization to control signals form circuits © 2016 Pearson Education, Inc., Hoboken, NJ. All rights reserved. © 2016 Pearson Education, Inc., Hoboken, NJ. All rights reserved. © 2016 Pearson Education, Inc., Hoboken, NJ. All rights reserved. Moore’s Law 1965; Gordon Moore – co-founder of Intel Observed number of transistors that could be put on a single chip was doubling every year Consequences of Moore’s law: The pace slowed to a doubling every 18 months in the 1970’s but The cost of Computer has sustained computer The electrical becomes logic and path length smaller and is Reduction in that rate ever memory is shortened, more power and Fewer since interchip circuitry has increasing convenient to cooling use in a connections fallen at a operating requirements dramatic speed variety of rate environments © 2016 Pearson Education, Inc., Hoboken, NJ. All rights reserved. + IBM System/360 Announced in 1964 Product line was incompatible with older IBM machines Was the success of the decade and cemented IBM as the overwhelmingly dominant computer vendor The architecture remains to this day the architecture of IBM’s mainframe computers Was the industry’s first planned family of computers Models were compatible in the sense that a program written for one model should be capable of being executed by another model in the series © 2016 Pearson Education, Inc., Hoboken, NJ. All rights reserved. + Family Characteristics Similar or Similar or identical identical operating instruction set system Increasing Increasing number of I/O speed ports Increasing Increasing cost memory size © 2016 Pearson Education, Inc., Hoboken, NJ. All rights reserved. © 2016 Pearson Education, Inc., Hoboken, NJ. All rights reserved.  + LSI Large Scale Later Integratio n Generation VLSI s Very Large Scale Integration ULSI Semiconductor Ultra Large Memory Scale Microprocessors Integration © 2016 Pearson Education, Inc., Hoboken, NJ. All rights reserved.  Semiconductor Memory In 1970 Fairchild produced the first relatively capacious semiconductor memory Chip was about the Could hold 256 bits Much faster than Non-destructive size of a single core of memory core In 1974 the price per bit of semiconductor memory dropped below the price There has been a continuing and perrapid bit of core Developments memory in memory and processor decline in memory cost accompanied by a technologies changed the nature of corresponding increase in physical memory computers in less than a decade density Since 1970 semiconductor memory has been through 13 generations Each generation has provided four times the storage density of the previous generation, accompanied by declining cost per bit and declining access time © 2016 Pearson Education, Inc., Hoboken, NJ. All rights reserved. + Microprocessors The density of elements on processor chips continued to rise More and more elements were placed on each chip so that fewer and fewer chips were needed to construct a single computer processor 1971 Intel developed 4004 First chip to contain all of the components of a CPU on a single chip Birth of microprocessor 1972 Intel developed 8008 First 8-bit microprocessor 1974 Intel developed 8080 First general purpose microprocessor Faster, has a richer instruction set, has a large addressing capability © 2016 Pearson Education, Inc., Hoboken, NJ. All rights reserved. Evolution of Intel Microprocessors (a) 1970s Processors © 2016 Pearson Education, Inc., Hoboken, NJ. All rights reserved. Evolution of Intel Microprocessors (b) 1980s Processors © 2016 Pearson Education, Inc., Hoboken, NJ. All rights reserved. Evolution of Intel Microprocessors (c) 1990s Processors © 2016 Pearson Education, Inc., Hoboken, NJ. All rights reserved. Evolution of Intel Microprocessors (d) Recent Processors © 2016 Pearson Education, Inc., Hoboken, NJ. All rights reserved. + The Evolution of the Intel x86 Architecture Two processor families are the Intel x86 and the ARM architectures Current x86 offerings represent the results of decades of design effort on complex instruction set computers (CISCs) An alternative approach to processor design is the reduced instruction set computer (RISC) ARM architecture is used in a wide variety of embedded systems and is one of the most powerful and best- designed RISC-based systems on the market © 2016 Pearson Education, Inc., Hoboken, NJ. All rights reserved.  Highlights of the Evolution of the Intel Product Line: 8080 8086 80286 80386 80486 World’s first A more Extension of Intel’s first 32- Introduced the general- powerful 16- the 8086 bit machine use of much purpose bit machine enabling First Intel more microprocesso Has an addressing a processor to sophisticated r instruction 16-MB support and powerful 8-bit machine, cache, or memory multitasking cache 8-bit data path queue, that instead of just technology to memory prefetches a 1MB and Was used in few sophisticated the first instructions instruction personal before they pipelining computer are executed Also offered a (Altair) The first built-in math appearance of coprocessor the x86 architecture The 8088 was a variant of this processor and used in IBM’s first personal computer (securing the success © 2016 Pearson Education, Inc., Hoboken, NJ. of All rights reserved. Intel Highlights of the Evolution of the Intel Product Line: Pentium Intel introduced the use of superscalar techniques, which allow multiple instructions to execute in parallel Pentium Pro Continued the move into superscalar organization with aggressive use of register renaming, branch prediction, data flow analysis, and speculative execution Pentium II Incorporated Intel MMX technology, which is designed specifically to process video, audio, and graphics data efficiently Pentium III Incorporated additional floating-point instructions Streaming SIMD Extensions (SSE) Pentium 4 Includes additional floating-point and other enhancements for multimedia Core First Intel x86 micro-core Core 2 Extends the Core architecture to 64 bits Core 2 Quad provides four cores on a single chip More recent Core offerings have up to 10 cores per chip An important addition to the architecture was the Advanced Vector Extensions instruction set © 2016 Pearson Education, Inc., Hoboken, NJ. All rights reserved. + Embedded Systems The use of electronics and software within a product Billions of computer systems are produced each year that are embedded within larger devices Today many devices that use electric power have an embedded computing system Often embedded systems are tightly coupled to their environment This can give rise to real-time constraints imposed by the need to interact with the environment Constraints such as required speeds of motion, required precision of measurement, and required time durations, dictate the timing of software operations If multiple activities must be managed simultaneously this imposes more complex real-time constraints © 2016 Pearson Education, Inc., Hoboken, NJ. All rights reserved. © 2016 Pearson Education, Inc., Hoboken, NJ. All rights reserved. + The Internet of Things (IoT) Term that refers to the expanding interconnection of smart devices, ranging from appliances to tiny sensors Is primarily driven by deeply embedded devices Generations of deployment culminating in the IoT: Information technology (IT) PCs, servers, routers, firewalls, and so on, bought as IT devices by enterprise IT people and primarily using wired connectivity Operational technology (OT) Machines/appliances with embedded IT built by non-IT companies, such as medical machinery, SCADA, process control, and kiosks, bought as appliances by enterprise OT people and primarily using wired connectivity Personal technology Smartphones, tablets, and eBook readers bought as IT devices by consumers exclusively using wireless connectivity and often multiple forms of wireless connectivity Sensor/actuator technology Single-purpose devices bought by consumers, IT, and OT people exclusively using wireless connectivity, generally of a single form, as part of larger systems It is the fourth generation that is usually thought of as the IoT and it is marked by the use of billions of embedded devices © 2016 Pearson Education, Inc., Hoboken, NJ. All rights reserved. + Embedded Application Processors Operating versus Systems Dedicated Processors There are two general Application processors approaches to developing Defined by the processor’s ability to execute complex operating systems an embedded operating General-purpose in nature system (OS): An example is the smartphone – the Take an existing OS and embedded system is designed to adapt it for the support numerous apps and perform a wide variety of functions embedded application Design and implement an Dedicated processor OS intended solely for Is dedicated to one or a small number embedded use of specific tasks required by the host device Because such an embedded system is dedicated to a specific task or tasks, the processor and associated components can be engineered to reduce size and cost © 2016 Pearson Education, Inc., Hoboken, NJ. All rights reserved. © 2016 Pearson Education, Inc., Hoboken, NJ. All rights reserved. + Deeply Embedded Systems Subset of embedded systems Has a processor whose behavior is difficult to observe both by the programmer and the user Uses a microcontroller rather than a microprocessor Is not programmable once the program logic for the device has been burned into ROM Has no interaction with a user Dedicated, single-purpose devices that detect something in the environment, perform a basic level of processing, and then do something with the results Often have wireless capability and appear in networked configurations, such as networks of sensors deployed over a large area Typically have extreme resource constraints in terms of memory, processor size, time, and power consumption © 2016 Pearson Education, Inc., Hoboken, NJ. All rights reserved.  ARM Refers to a processor architecture that has evolved from RISC design principles and is used in embedded systems Family of RISC-based microprocessors and microcontrollers designed by ARM Holdings, Cambridge, England Chips are high-speed processors that are known for their small die size and low power requirements Probably the most widely used embedded processor architecture and indeed the most widely used processor architecture of any kind in the world Acorn RISC Machine/Advanced RISC Machine © 2016 Pearson Education, Inc., Hoboken, NJ. All rights reserved. + ARM Products Cortex-M Cortex-M0 Cortex-R Cortex-M0+ Cortex-M3 Cortex-A/ Cortex-M4 Cortex-A50 © 2016 Pearson Education, Inc., Hoboken, NJ. All rights reserved. © 2016 Pearson Education, Inc., Hoboken, NJ. All rights reserved. + Cloud Computing NIST defines cloud computing as: “A model for enabling ubiquitous, convenient, on- demand network access to a shared pool of configurable computing resources that can be rapidly provisioned and released with minimal management effort or service provider interaction.” You get economies of scale, professional network management, and professional security management The individual or company only needs to pay for the storage capacity and services they need Cloud provider takes care of security © 2016 Pearson Education, Inc., Hoboken, NJ. All rights reserved.  Cloud Networking Refers to the networks and network management functionality that must be in place to enable cloud computing One example is the provisioning of high-performance and/or high-reliability networking between the provider and subscriber The collection of network capabilities required to access a cloud, including making use of specialized services over the Internet, linking enterprise data center to a cloud, and using firewalls and other network security devices at critical points to enforce access security policies Cloud Storage Subset of cloud computing Consists of database storage and database applications hosted remotely on cloud servers Enables small businesses and individual users to take advantage of data storage that scales with their needs and to take advantage of a variety of database applications without having to buy, maintain, and manage the storage assets © 2016 Pearson Education, Inc., Hoboken, NJ. All rights reserved. © 2016 Pearson Education, Inc., Hoboken, NJ. All rights reserved. + Summary Basic Concepts and Computer Evolution Chapter 1 Organization and architecture Embedded systems Structure and function The Internet of things Embedded operating Brief history of computers The First Generation: Vacuum systems tubes Application processors versus The Second Generation: dedicated processors Transistors Microprocessors versus The Third Generation: Integrated microcontrollers Circuits Embedded versus deeply Later generations embedded systems The evolution of the Intel x86 ARM architecture architecture ARM evolution Cloud computing Instruction set architecture Basic concepts ARM products Cloud services © 2016 Pearson Education, Inc., Hoboken, NJ. All rights reserved.