Ch 1-4 Study Guide.pdf

Ch 1-4 Study Guide 1. What is the Overall Body Plan: External and Internal Environment, Body Fluid Compartments - TBW, ICF, ECF, Plasma, ISF (pg. 6) - External Environment: o It is the external side of the epithelial body barrier. o Examples: ▪ Surroundings external to the skin ▪ Air in the lungs ▪...

Ch 1-4 Study Guide 1. What is the Overall Body Plan: External and Internal Environment, Body Fluid Compartments - TBW, ICF, ECF, Plasma, ISF (pg. 6) - External Environment: o It is the external side of the epithelial body barrier. o Examples: ▪ Surroundings external to the skin ▪ Air in the lungs ▪ Food in the stomach ▪ Urine in the bladder - Internal Environment: o It is the immediate environment of most cells. o It includes tissue fluid and plasma. - Body Fluid Compartments: o Total Body Water (TBW): ▪ It consists of water and dissolved materials. ▪ It also includes solutions within cells and solutions surrounding cells. o Intracellular Fluid (ICF): ▪ It is the fluid inside the cells (cytoplasm) o Extracellular Fluid (ECF): ▪ It is the fluid outside the cells but within the body. ▪ Located in the internal environment. ▪ Subdivisions includes: o Plasma: ▪ It surrounds blood cells. o Interstitial fluid: ▪ Tissue fluid. ▪ Surrounds all other cells. 2. What is Homeostasis (pg. 9), Negative and Positive Feedback Systems, Homeostatic Regulatory Mechanism (pg. 10-12) - Homeostasis: o It is the maintenance of relatively constant conditions within the body’s internal environment. o Components: ▪ Receptors: • These are sensors that detects stimuli. ▪ ▪ ▪ Integrating centers: • It coordinates an appropriate response. • Most are found in the brain. Effectors: • These are responsible for body responses. Signals: • It allows components to communicate. - Negative Feedback System: o If a variable deviates from the set point, the feedback loop activates mechanisms to bring it back to the desired range. - Positive Feedback System: o It is the amplification or growth of the output signal. o It is the breakdown of homeostasis of the system, such as childbirth, and blood clotting. - Homeostatic Regulatory Mechanism: o It is the physiological processes and control systems that living organisms use to maintain internal stability and balance. o It includes setpoint, sensors, an integrating center, feedback loops, and effectors. o Setpoint: ▪ The normal value range of our body. 3. What are the Biomolecules: 4 basic types (pg. 19), Carbohydrate groups, Lipid classes, Proteins and Amino Acids, Nucleotides and Nucleic acids - Carbohydrate: o Composed of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen. o 3 types: ▪ Monosaccharides: • Simple sugars which are composed of a single unit. • It is part of hydroxyl groups which makes the carbohydrates POLAR. • Example: o Glucose ▪ Disaccharides: • Formed by covalent bond from two monosaccharides. • Example: o Sucrose ▪ Polysaccharides: • Formed by covalent bonding of several monosaccharides. • ▪ ▪ ▪ Example: o Starch Covalent bonds: • Synthesis and breakdown of saccharides must be linked by covalent bonds. Condensation: • It is the joining of monosaccharides together. Hydrolysis: • The splitting of larger saccharide into smaller components by water. - Lipids: o Composed primarily of hydrogen and carbon atoms. ▪ Contains nonpolar covalent bonds. ▪ It is hydrophobic. o 5 classes: ▪ Triglycerides: • It contains glycerol and 3 fatty acids. o Glycerol: it’s a three-carbon alcohol o Fatty acids: are non-polar and hydrophobic. ▪ Ketones ▪ Phospholipids: • It has a polar head and nonpolar tail. ▪ Eicosanoids ▪ Steroids: • Derived from cholesterol. - Proteins & Amino Acids: o Proteins: ▪ These are polymers (chemical chain) of amino acids. o Amino Acids: ▪ It is the building blocks of proteins. ▪ It contains 20 different kinds of amino acids. o Levels of Protein Structure: ▪ Primary ▪ Secondary: • It is the hydrogen bonding between the amino hydrogen of one amino acid and the carboxyl oxygen of another amino acid. • Common structures include: o a – Helixes o B – Pleated sheets ▪ Tertiary: • ▪ - It is the formation of bends and loops in a polypeptide chain due to interactions between R groups. • Interactions that causes Tertiary Structure: o Ionic bonds o Van der Waals forces o Hydrogen bonds o Covalent bonds (disulfide bridge) o Disruption of bonds = denaturation Quaternary: • It is the formation of proteins with more than one polypeptide chain (e.g., hemoglobin). Nucleotides & Nucleic Acids: o Nucleotide structure: ▪ It contains phosphate group(s) ▪ 5-carbon carbohydrate: • Ribose • Deoxyribose ▪ Bases that contain carbon-nitrogen ring: • Pyrimidines (cytosine, thymine, uracil) • Purines (adenine, guanine) o Nucleic Acids: ▪ Polymers of nucleotides • DNA: o stores genetic code. o Double stranded Helix o Carbohydrate = deoxyribose o Bases: ▪ Purines: Adenine (A) & Guanine (G) ▪ Pyrimidines: Cytosine (C) & Thymine (T) o Law of complementary base pairing: ▪ A-T (A-U) ▪ C-G • RNA: o Needed for expression of genetic code. o Sugar = ribose o Bases: ▪ Purines: Adenine (A) & Guanine (G) ▪ Pyrimidines: Cytosine (C) & Uracil (U) 4. Define the Cell and its Parts (pg. 29), Function of the Parts (pg. 30-39, Table 2.2) - - - - - - - - - Cell: o It is the basic structural and functional unit of life. Plasma membrane: o It separated the cell from the extracellular fluid. o It maintains the boundary of cell and integrity of cell structure. o Embedded proteins serve multiple functions. Nucleus: o It houses the DNA, which dictates the cellular function and protein synthesis. Cytoplasm: o It includes everything inside the cell except the nucles. o It consists of two main components: ▪ Cytosol: a gel like intracellular fluid. ▪ Organelles: structures made up of a variety of biomolecules. Ribosomes: o It is the translation of mRNA to synthesize proteins. o It has 2 tRNA binding sites: ▪ P site: • It holds tRNA with the last amino acid added to the polypeptide chain. ▪ A site: • It holds tRNA with the next amino acid to be added to the polypeptide chain. Rough Endoplasmic Reticulum: o This is where the ribosomes attach to do protein synthesis and posttranslational processing. Smooth Endoplasmic Reticulum: o Part of lipid synthesis and post-translational processing of proteins. o Transport of molecules from endoplasmic reticulum to Golgi apparatus. o Acts as a calcium storage. Golgi apparatus: o Post-translational processing of proteins. o Packaging and sorting of proteins. Mitochondria: o The powerhouse of the cell that generates ATP. Lysosomes: o It contains enzymes that degrade cellular or extracellular debris through the process of Endocytosis & Phagocytosis. Peroxisomes: o It breaks down certain waste molecules such as: ▪ Amino acids, Fatty acids, & toxic foreign substances. - - Cytoskeleton: o It is the structural support of a cell; cell movement and contraction. Vaults: o May function in the transport of molecules between the nucleus and cytoplasm. o Recently discovered (1981) Centrioles: o The direction of mitotic spindle development during cell division. Nonmembranous organelles: o Vaults, Ribosomes, Centrioles & Cytoskeleton. 5. Define the Plasma Membrane - nonpolar, hydrophobic, lipophilic, polar, hydrophilic, lipophobic (pg. 31) - Plasma membrane: o It is the barrier between the cell and external environment o Fluid inside cell is Intracellular Fluid (ICF) o Fluid outside cell is Extracellular Fluid (ECF) o It is described as a fluid mosaic which consists of: ▪ Phospholipid bilayer: • It contains hydrophilic heads which are polar that faces outwards and interact with the aqueous environment both inside and outside of the cell. • It contains hydrophobic tails which are nonpolar. ▪ Cholesterol: • It adds fluidity to the cell membrane. ▪ Membrane proteins: • Integral membrane proteins: o These are embedded within the lipid bilayer so they can be dissociated from the membrane only by physically disrupting the bilayer. • Peripheral membrane proteins: o These are loosely bound to the membrane by associations with integral membrane proteins or phospholipids. ▪ Membrane carbohydrates: • These are covalently bound to membrane lipids or proteins such as: o Glycoproteins o Glycolipids • 2 main functions are: o Glycocalyx and cell recognition. ▪ Lipophilic: • These are hydrophobic molecules that are lipid soluble and can cross the plasma membrane but does dissolve in plasma. ▪ Lipophobic: • These are hydrophilic molecules that are water soluble, so it dissolves in plasma, but it does not cross the plasma membrane. 6. What is Protein Synthesis from Transcription to Translation (pg. 42-48) 1. DNA is transcribed according to the genetic code to form a complementary mRNA in the nucleus. 2. mRNA moves from the nucleus to the cytoplasm. 3. mRNA is translated by ribosomes to form the correct amino acid sequence of the protein in the cytoplasm. - - Gene: o It is the portion of DNA that codes for a particular protein. Transcription: o It is the process in which RNA is synthesized using information contained in the DNA. o It occurs in the nucleus. Translation: o It is the process in which polypeptides are synthesized using mRNA codons as a template for the assembly of the correct amino acids along the sequence. o It requires mRNA, tRNA, & rRNA (ribosomes). o It occurs at the ribosomes in the cytoplasm. 7. Define Mitosis (pg. 50-53) - Mitosis: o It is the type of cell division that yields two daughter cells containing the normal number of chromosomes. o Prophase: ▪ Chromatin pairs condense. ▪ Microtubules disassemble into tubulin components which form the mitotic spindle. ▪ Centriole pairs move to opposite poles of the cell. o o o o o - - ▪ Mitotic spindle develops between centriole pairs. Prometaphase: ▪ Nuclear envelope breaks down. ▪ Nucleolus is no longer visible. ▪ Centrioles are at opposite poles of the cell. ▪ Chromosomes become linked at centromeres to spindle fibers. Metaphase: ▪ Chromosomes are aligned in a plane at the middle of the cell. Anaphase: ▪ Chromatid pairs separate. ▪ Chromosomes move along the mitotic spindle toward opposite poles. Telophase: ▪ New nuclear envelopes develop. ▪ Chromosomes begin to dcondense to chromatin. ▪ Mitotic spindle breaks down. Cytokinesis: ▪ It is the division of the cytoplasm. Interphase: o G 0-2 phases o Cell performing physiological functions. S phases (DNA replication): o The mechanism of copying DNA G 2 phase: o Growth 8. Define Metabolism (pg. 57), Types of Metabolism (pg. 59), Kinetic vs. Potential Energy (pg. 59) Chemical Equilibrium (pg. 61) - - Metabolism: o It is the sum of all chemical reactions occurring in a cell. Energy metabolism: o Reactions involved in energy storage and use. Metabolic reactions: o Hydrolysis and condensation o Phosphorylation and dephosphorylation o Oxidation-reduction Oxidation: o Removal of electrons Oxidation-Reduction: o Addition of electrons - - - - - Kinetic Energy: o Associated with motion. o Examples: Thermal, radiant, electromagnetic, electrical. Potential Energy: o Stored energy o Chemical, mechanical, nuclear, gravitational. Chemical Equilibrium: o It is the rate of forward and reverse reactions are equal. o No net change in concentration of products or reactants. Activation Energy: o It is the energy required to initiate or start a chemical reaction. o The difference between the energy of the transition state and the energy of either the reactants or the products. o Activation energy barrier o Energy of barrier = activation energy o It limits how fast a reaction goes. Rate of Chemical Reaction: o How fast reactants are consumed, and products are generated. Factors Affecting Reaction Rate: o Reactant and product concentrations o Temperature o Height of activation energy barrier. 9. Study Catabolism vs. Anabolism (pg. 57) and Exergonic/Exothermic Reactions vs. Endergonic/Endothermic Reactions (pg. 60) - - - - Catabolism: o It is the breakdown of large molecules to smaller molecules, which releases energy. Anabolism: o It is the synthesis of large molecules from smaller molecules, which requires an input of energy. Exergonic Reactions: o It proceeds spontaneously in the forward direction, in other words, it occurs on its own. o It releases energy through work. Exothermic Reactions: o Releases energy through heat. Endergonic Reactions: o It does not go forward spontaneously; They go forward only when energy is put into them. o It spontaneously goes in reverse when energy is not put into them. - Endothermic Reactions: o It reabsorbs heat from the surroundings which results in a decrease in temperature. 10. Study the definitions + meanings of Glycolysis (pg. 74), Glycogenesis, Glycogenolysis, and Gluconeogenesis (pg. 85-86) - - - - Glycolysis: o It is the breakdown of glucose into two pyruvate molecules; “Splitting of sugar.” Glycogenesis: o This is the process when glucose is stored as glycogen when glucose is in abundant supply as most of the glucose molecules are not oxidized immediately. Glycogenolysis: o During fasting or when glucose is being used up quickly, the supply of glucose is replenished by the process of breaking down the glycogen into individual glucose molecules. Gluconeogenesis: o It is the process during which new glucose molecules can be synthesized from noncarbohydrate precursors by the liver 11. Define Concentration Gradients (pg. 95-100) - Concentration Gradients: o It is the difference in particle concentration between the inside and outside of the cell. o The gradient "pushes" particles from higher to lower concentration areas. 12. What is Simple Diffusion and Factors Affecting Rates of Simple Diffusion (pg. 101103) - - Simple Diffusion: o No membrane proteins are needed. o The process of transport is through the bilipid layer. o It is the process by which molecules or ions move from an area of higher concentration to an area of lower concentration. It's a natural movement driven by the tendency of particles to spread out and achieve a balanced distribution. o Does not require ATP. Factors Affecting Rates of Simple Diffusion: o Magnitude of the driving force o Membrane surface area o Membrane permeability ▪ Membrane permeability factors: • Lipid solubility of diffusing substance • Size and shape of diffusing particle • Temperature • Thickness of membrane 13. Define Facilitated Diffusion (pg. 104), Diffusion Through Channels (pg. 105), and Osmosis (pg. 110) - - - Facilitated Diffusion: o It is a passive transport movement by using a carrier. Factors Affecting the rate of transport (Facilitated Diffusion): o Rate of transport of each carrier o Number of carriers in the membrane o Concentration gradient Diffusion Through Channels: o It is a passive transport through a channel. o Characteristics of a channel: ▪ Transmembrane protein ▪ It functions like a passageway or pore. ▪ It is substance specific. (Chooses the specific substance to transport) Osmosis: o It is the water movement (diffusion) that occurs from a low concentration of solute to a high concentration of solute. o Characteristics: ▪ Always passive transport ▪ Unaffected by membrane potentials ▪ Driven by water gradient 14. Define Primary and Secondary Active Transport (pg. 106-110) - - Primary Active Transport: o Energy comes from a high-energy compound. o It is a process that directly uses energy (like ATP) to move molecules or ions against their natural flow, from an area of lower concentration to an area of higher concentration. Secondary Active Transport: o Energy is usually from ATP hydrolysis. o It takes advantage of the energy created by primary active transport or another source to move molecules. Terms: - Condensation: o The reverse of hydrolysis that involves the joining together of two or more smaller molecules to form a larger one, as when amino acids are joined together to form proteins.