CET Sail Earth Science (2023) PDF

E T CAIL! S with SCIENCE VOLUME 2: SCIENCE II. Earth Science CET sail with SCIENCE Topic Outline I. Earth Science 1. Layers of the Earth 2. Rocks and Minerals 3. Land Formations and Water Formations 4. Stratigraphy 5. Fossils 6. Plate Tectonics, Volcanoes, Earthquakes 7. Atmosp...

E T CAIL! S with SCIENCE VOLUME 2: SCIENCE II. Earth Science CET sail with SCIENCE Topic Outline I. Earth Science 1. Layers of the Earth 2. Rocks and Minerals 3. Land Formations and Water Formations 4. Stratigraphy 5. Fossils 6. Plate Tectonics, Volcanoes, Earthquakes 7. Atmosphere, Weather, Climate E T CAIL! S 2 CET Sail: Earth Science 2023 I. LAYERS OF THE EARTH Interior of the Earth Image retrieved from https://geography4u.com/layers-of-the-earth/amp/ 3 CET Sail: Earth Science 2023 I. LAYERS OF THE EARTH Discontinuities in the layers of the earth Image retrieved from https://geography4u.com/layers-of-the-earth/amp/ 4 CET Sail: Earth Science 2023 I. LAYERS OF THE EARTH Layers of the Earth: Position, Density, and Composition Layer Relative Position Density Composition Outermost layer; Least dense layer Solid Rock - mostly thinnest under the overall; Oceanic silicon and oxygen; ocean, thickest under crust (basalt) is Crust Oceanic crust - continents; crust and more dense the basalt; Continental top of mantle called continental crust crust - granite the lithosphere (granite) Density increases Middle layer, thickest with depth Hot softened rock; layer; top portion Mantle because of contains iron and called the increasing magnesium asthenosphere pressure Mostly iron and Inner layer, consists Heaviest material; nickel; outer core - Core of two parts - outer most dense layer slow flowing liquid; core and inner core inner core - solid 5 CET Sail: Earth Science 2023 II. ROCKS AND MINERALS A. Rocks Rock a solid collection of mineral grains held together in a solid mass, and they are majorly classified by how they are sourced and formed: formed by cooling of magma (intrusive/plutonic rocks) or lava (extrusive/volcanic rocks). Igneous Note: Slow cooling produces bigger crystals. This is why Rocks intrusive rocks, which undergo slower cooling inside Earth, have bigger crystals than extrusive rocks, which cooled rapidly on the surface of Earth. formed by breaking down of existing rocks into sediments (erosion, weathering, dissolution) followed by formation of a new rock out of the sediments (precipitation and lithification). involves the processes: 1. Erosion and Weathering - wind and rain breaking down bigger rocks into smaller one. Sediment 2. Dissolution - a chemical weathering that breaks stone ary Rocks via an acidic water. 3. Precipitation - is the formation of rocks and minerals from chemicals that precipitate from water. 4. Lithification - is the process by which clay, sand, and other sediments on the bottom of the ocean or other bodies of water are slowly compacted into rocks from the weight of overlying sediments. 6 CET Sail: Earth Science 2023 II. ROCKS AND MINERALS A. Rocks formed when existing when minerals in an existing rock are changed by heat of pressure. The condition involving heat and pressure are usually occurring deep in Earth’s crust or in plate boundaries. Metamorphic In order to create metamorphic rock, it is vital that the existing Rocks rock remain solid and not melt, or else, it would become an igneous rock. They can be classified as foliated (with aligning of minerals perpendicular to pressure) or nonfoliated (has no layered appearance) B. Rock Cycle The rock cycle is a web of processes that outlines how each of the three major rock types—igneous, metamorphic, and sedimentary—form and break down based on the different applications of heat and pressure over time. 7 CET Sail: Earth Science 2023 II. ROCKS AND MINERALS B. Rock Cycle Image retrieved from https://www.bgs.ac.uk/discovering-geology/rocks-and-minerals/ 8 CET Sail: Earth Science 2023 II. ROCKS AND MINERALS C. Minerals There is always the question of “What is the difference between a rock and a mineral?” Minerals can be defined by these very specific characteristics: Naturally occurring Minerals occur in nature, as a product of natural geologic processes. Solid at room temperature All minerals are solid and often exhibit crystalline structure. Inorganic Minerals do not come from living things; thus, they lack C-H bonds. Fixed chemical structure Minerals of the same kind have the same chemical formula and same crystal structure. Minerals are also described by their properties: Luster Describes how well a mineral reflects light. Examples of luster include glassy, metallic, brilliant, and dull. Hardness Describes how easy it is to scratch the surface of a mineral. Scientists often use the Moh's scale to describe hardness. Using the Moh's scale, a "1" is the softest mineral and a "10" is the hardest. One example of hardness is diamond. Diamond has a hardness of 10 because it is the hardest of all the minerals. 9 CET Sail: Earth Science 2023 II. ROCKS AND MINERALS C. Minerals Streak The color of the mineral in powdered form. One way to determine the streak is to rub the mineral across a rough hard surface like a tile. Cleavage Describes how a mineral breaks up into pieces. Some minerals break up into small cubes while others may break up into thin sheets. Specific Gravity (SG) Measures the density of the mineral. It is measured in comparison to water where water has a specific gravity of 1. For example, pyrite has a specific gravity of 5 and quartz has a specific gravity of 2.7. Color Although color is often used to describe a mineral, it sometimes isn't the best way to tell one mineral from another as one type of mineral can come in several different colors. Minerals are also classified as silicates (composed of silicon and oxygen), non-silicates (such as carbonates (contain CO₃), halides (contain halogen like chlorine), oxides (contain oxygen), and sulfides (contain sulfur), and native elements (minerals composed of one element) such as pure gold and copper. Silicates make up 90% of Earth’s crust. 10 CET Sail: Earth Science 2023 III. LAND AND WATER FORMATIONS Landforms comprises a geomorphological unit and is largely defined by its surface form and location in the landscape. Classifications: A landform is a feature on Earth's surface that is part of the terrain. Mountains, hills, plateaus, and plains are the four major types of landforms. Minor landforms include buttes, canyons, valleys, and basins. Formation Tectonic plate movement under Earth can create landforms by pushing up mountains and hills. Erosion by water and wind can wear down land and create landforms like valleys and canyons. Waterforms / Waterway bodies of water that are important for many reasons, but in relation to topography, water is the force behind erosion. Some Major Classification Ocean - a body of saline water that composes much of Earth’s hydrosphere. Sea - smaller than oceans and usually located where the land and ocean meets. Strait - a waterway that cpnnects two larger bodies. Gulf - a large bay that is an arm of an ocean or sea. 11 CET Sail: Earth Science 2023 III. LAND AND WATER FORMATIONS Some Major Classifications Bay - a body of water connected to a sea or ocean, formed by an inlet of land due to the surrounding land blocking some waves and often reducing winds. Lake - surrounded by land. River - a watercourse of freshwater that flows towards an ocean, lake, sea, or to another river. Tributary - a river or stream that flows into a larger waterway. Spring - a body where water flows out of the ground. Lagoon - a shallow body of water separated from the greater ocean by coral reef, islands, shoals or atoll. Waterfall - where flowing water falls over a drop, which creates a vertical “fall” of water. 12 CET Sail: Earth Science 2023 III. LAND AND WATER FORMATIONS Image retrieved from https://www.exploringnature.org/db/view/Landforms-and-Waterways 13 CET Sail: Earth Science 2023 IV. STRATIGRAPHY History: Catastrophism Major catastrophes shaped Earth’s natural landscapes Uniformitarianism Continuous natural processes seen today shaped Earth’s landscapes. James Hutton: Scottish geologist; “Father of Modern Geology” Steno’s Laws of Stratigraphy Named after Danish scientist, Nicholas Steno i. Law of Superposition: Younger layers sit atop older layers ii. Law of Lateral Continuity: Layers are continuous until broken up or disrupted iii. Law of Original Horizontality: Layers are deposited as flat sheets. Tilting/folding occurs later in time iv. Law of Cross-Cutting Relations: Any inclusions are younger than the layers they’re found in Additional Principle: Faunal Succession Proposed by William Smith Younger fossils are found above older fossils 14 CET Sail: Earth Science 2023 IV. STRATIGRAPHY Image retrieved from https://www.geologyin.com/2014/03/stenos-principles-of- stratigraphy.html 15 CET Sail: Earth Science 2023 V. FOSSILS Geologic Time Image retrieved from Image retrieved from https://earthathome.org/geologic-time-scale/ 16 CET Sail: Earth Science 2023 V. FOSSILS Geologic Time Notable periods: 4.6 BYA: Formation of the Earth 530 MYA: Cambrian explosion (sudden appearance of new animals in the fossil record) 11.8 KYA - Present: Holocene; current epoch Image retrieved from https://www.msnucleus.org/membership/html /jh/earth/stratigraphy/jhstratigraphy.pdf 17 CET Sail: Earth Science 2023 V. FOSSILS Absolute vs. Relative Dating Absolute Dating Relative Dating Quantitative Qualitative Gives numerical age (e.g. 200 ± 3 Arranges objects/organisms/events in million years) time (which one is older/younger) Example: Using radioactive decay Example: Using a common fossil in two (half-life) of a radioactive material to areas (index fossil) to compare what determine the age of a rock happened at a specific time period 18 CET Sail: Earth Science 2023 V. FOSSILS Absolute vs. Relative Dating Absolute Dating Relative Dating Image retrieved from https://www.msnucleus.org/membership Image retrieved from /html/jh/earth/stratigraphy/lesson3/strati https://www.albert.io/learn/question/ graphy3f.html middle-school-science/index-fossils 19 CET Sail: Earth Science 2023 VI. PLATE TECTONICS, VOLCANOES, & EARTHQUAKES NOTE: all figures in this Lesson VI were lifted from NatGeo Earth Science Theory of Plate Tectonics Earth’s crust and rigid upper mantle are broken into enormous slabs called tectonic plates that interact at their boundaries convection currents in the mantle cause plates to move 20 CET Sail: Earth Science 2023 VI. PLATE TECTONICS, VOLCANOES, & EARTHQUAKES Plate Boundaries Divergent boundary plates move apart NatGeo Earth Science 21 CET Sail: Earth Science 2023 VI. PLATE TECTONICS, VOLCANOES, & EARTHQUAKES Plate Boundaries Convergent boundary – plates come together oceanic–oceanic oceanic–continental continental– continental NatGeo Earth Science 22 CET Sail: Earth Science 2023 VI. PLATE TECTONICS, VOLCANOES, & EARTHQUAKES Plate Boundaries Transform boundary – plates slide horizontally past each other NatGeo Earth Science 23 CET Sail: Earth Science 2023 VI. PLATE TECTONICS, VOLCANOES, & EARTHQUAKES Volcanoes fueled by magma magma – a slushy mixture of molten rock, mineral crystals, and gases lava – magma that reaches the Earth’s surface most of Earth’s active volcanoes are located along plate boundaries NatGeo Earth Science 24 CET Sail: Earth Science 2023 VI. PLATE TECTONICS, VOLCANOES, & EARTHQUAKES Types of Volcanoes Shield Volcanoes largest of the three types of volcanoes long, gentle slopes composed of layers of solidified basaltic lava quiet eruptions e.g., Mauna Loa, Hawaii NatGeo Earth Science 25 CET Sail: Earth Science 2023 VI. PLATE TECTONICS, VOLCANOES, & EARTHQUAKES Types of Volcanoes Cinder Cones smallest of the three types of volcanoes steep-sloped, cone-shaped usually composed of basaltic lava explosive eruptions usually form at edges of larger volcanoes e.g., Lassen Volcanic Park, California NatGeo Earth Science 26 CET Sail: Earth Science 2023 VI. PLATE TECTONICS, VOLCANOES, & EARTHQUAKES Types of Volcanoes Composite Volcanoes considerably larger than cinder cones tall, majestic mountains composed of layers of granitic rock and lava flows cycle through periods of quiet and explosive eruptions e.g., Mount Augustine, Alaska NatGeo Earth Science 27 CET Sail: Earth Science 2023 VI. PLATE TECTONICS, VOLCANOES, & EARTHQUAKES Types of Magma Magma Composition and Characteristics Basaltic Magma Andesitic Magma Rhyolitic Magma oceanic crusts and Source material upper mantle continental crust sediments Viscosity low intermediate high Gas content 1–2% 3–4% 4–6% Silica content about 50% about 60% about 70% continental both oceanic margins associated Location of magma and continental continental crust with subduction crust zones 28 CET Sail: Earth Science 2023 VI. PLATE TECTONICS, VOLCANOES, & EARTHQUAKES Earthquakes most earthquakes occur in seismic belts, which are areas associated with plate boundaries Stress and Strain Stress total force acting on crustal rocks per unit area Types: Compression – stress that decreases the volume of a material Tension – stress that pulls a material apart Shear – stress that causes a material to twist Strain deformation of materials in response to stress NatGeo Earth Science 29 CET Sail: Earth Science 2023 VI. PLATE TECTONICS, VOLCANOES, & EARTHQUAKES Faults any fracture or system of fractures along which Earth moves they form when the forces acting on rock exceed the rock’s strength Types: Reverse – compression causes horizontal and vertical movement Normal – tension causes horizontal and vertical movement Strike-slip – shear causes horizontal movement NatGeo Earth Science 30 CET Sail: Earth Science 2023 VI. PLATE TECTONICS, VOLCANOES, & EARTHQUAKES Earthquake Waves Seismic waves vibrations of the ground during an earthquake every earthquake generates three types of seismic waves Types of seismic waves Primary waves (P-waves) squeeze and push rocks in the direction along which the waves are traveling particle movement is parallel to the wave direction Secondary waves (S-waves) slower than P-waves → S-waves are the second set of waves to be felt causes rocks to move at right angles in relation to the direction of the waves particle movement is perpendicular to the wave direction NatGeo Earth Science 31 CET Sail: Earth Science 2023 VI. PLATE TECTONICS, VOLCANOES, & EARTHQUAKES Types of seismic waves NOTE: both P- and S-waves pass through Earth’s interior, and are also called body waves for this reason Surface waves slowest type of waves travel only along Earth’s surface causes rock particles to move both up and down and from side to side usually cause the most destruction because they cause the most movement of the ground, and take the longest time to pass NatGeo Earth Science 32 CET Sail: Earth Science 2023 VI. PLATE TECTONICS, VOLCANOES, & EARTHQUAKES Generation of seismic waves Focus point of initial fault rupture point where waves originate Epicenter the surface point directly above the focus surface waves originate from the epicenter and spread out NatGeo Earth Science 33 CET Sail: Earth Science 2023 VI. PLATE TECTONICS, VOLCANOES, & EARTHQUAKES Generation of seismic waves Seismometer a sensitive instrument used to detect vibrations caused by seismic waves NatGeo Earth Science 34 CET Sail: Earth Science 2023 VI. PLATE TECTONICS, VOLCANOES, & EARTHQUAKES Generation of seismic waves Seismogram the record produced by a seismometer NatGeo Earth Science 35 CET Sail: Earth Science 2023 VI. PLATE TECTONICS, VOLCANOES, & EARTHQUAKES Measuring Earthquakes Earthquake Magnitude a measure of the energy released during an earthquake can be measured on Richter scale devised by geologist Charles Richter each successive number represents a 10-fold increase (e.g., the seismic waves of a magnitude-7 earthquake is are 10 times larger than those of a magnitude-6) may also be measured using the Moment magnitude scale a rating scale that measures the energy released by an earthquake takes into account the size of the fault rupture, the amount of movement along the fault, and the rock’s stiffness Earthquake Intensity a measure of the damage caused by an earthquake measured with the modified Mercalli scale 36 CET Sail: Earth Science 2023 VI. PLATE TECTONICS, VOLCANOES, & EARTHQUAKES Measuring Earthquakes NatGeo Earth Science 37 CET Sail: Earth Science 2023 VI. PLATE TECTONICS, VOLCANOES, & EARTHQUAKES Locating Earthquakes To locate the epicenter of an earthquake, scientists identify the seismic stations on a map, and draw a circle with the radius of distance to the epicenter from each station. The point where all the circles intersect is the epicenter. NatGeo Earth Science 38 CET Sail: Earth Science 2023 VII. ATMOSPHERE, WEATHER, CLIMATE NOTE: all figures in this Lesson VII were lifted from NatGeo Earth Science Composition of Earth's Atmosphere Composition of the Atmosphere Atmospheric Layer Components Troposphere layer closest to Earth’s surface, ends at tropopause layer above troposphere, contains the ozone layer, Stratosphere and ends at stratopause Mesosphere layer above stratosphere, ends at mesopause 39 CET Sail: Earth Science 2023 VII. ATMOSPHERE, WEATHER, CLIMATE Composition of the Atmosphere Atmospheric Layer Components layer above mesosphere, Thermosphere absorbs solar radiation outermost layer of Earth’s atmosphere, transitional Exosphere space between Earth’s atmosphere and outer space 40 CET Sail: Earth Science 2023 VII. ATMOSPHERE, WEATHER, CLIMATE Weather short-term variations in atmospheric phenomena that interact and affect the environment and life on Earth variations can take place over minutes, hours, days, weeks, months, or years results when air masses with different pressures and temperatures move, change, and collide Meteorology the study of atmospheric phenomena Gathering Weather Data / Weather Instruments Thermometer – measures temperature using either the Fahrenheit or Celsius scale Barometer – measures air pressure Anemometer – measures wind speed Hygrometer – measures relative humidity Wind vane – for wind direction Rain gauge – measures amount of rainfall/precipitation Climate long-term average of variations in weather for a particular area affected by several factors including latitude and elevation Climatology the study of Earth’s climate and the factors that affect past, present, and future climatic changes 41 CET Sail: Earth Science 2023 VII. ATMOSPHERE, WEATHER, CLIMATE Climate Classification: Köppen Classification System developed by German climatologist Wladimir Köppen a classification system for climates that are based on the average monthly values of temperature and precipitation also takes into account the distinct vegetation found in different climates Five Main Climate Types Tropical climates Dry climates Mild climates Continental climates Polar climates Microclimate a localized climate that differs from the main regional climate Heat island a microclimate created by many concrete buildings and large expanses of asphalt, where the climate is warmer than in surrounding rural areas Climatic Changes Earth’s climate is constantly changing on many different timescales Climate change may occur on a long-term or short-term scale may also be correlated with changes in solar activity also associated with changes in Earth’s orbit, tilt, and wobble CET Sail: Science, Earth Science. 2023 REFERENCES https://education.nationalgeographic.org/search/resources/? q=Landform&page[number]=1&page[size]=25 https://earthathome.org/geologic-time-scale/ https://www.msnucleus.org/membership/html/jh/earth/stratig raphy/jhstratigraphy.pdf National Geographic Society (US), Hess, F. S., Kunze, G., Leslie, S. A., Letro, S., Millage, C.,... & Snow, T. P. (2005). Earth Science: Geology, the Environment and the Universe. Glencoe/McGraw- Hill. About Us. CET Sail is a non-profit, student-run project intended to help senior high school students prepare for UPCAT 2024. Our target demographic is those especially who have difficulty in Math & Sciences and those who may not have immediate access to reviewers due to financial reasons, yet are avidly preparing for their examination. For contacts, you may message our Facebook Page Below: https://www.facebook.com/CETSail2023