CENG305 Computer Networks Izmir Katip Celebi University Fall 2024-2025 PDF

CENG305 Computer Networks Izmir Katip Celebi University Fall 2024-2025 Chapter 02 H. Burak Akyol,...

CENG305 Computer Networks Izmir Katip Celebi University Fall 2024-2025 Chapter 02 H. Burak Akyol, Ph.D. These slides are adapted from the textbook ‘Computer Networking: A Top-Down Approach' by Jim Kurose and Keith Ross. These slides are copyright 1996-2023 J.F Kurose and K.W. Ross, All Rights Reserved Application layer: overview ▪ Principles of network ▪ P2P applications applications ▪ video streaming and content ▪ Web and HTTP distribution networks ▪ E-mail, SMTP, IMAP ▪ socket programming with ▪ The Domain Name System UDP and TCP DNS Application Layer: 2-2 Some network apps ▪ social networking ▪ P2P file sharing ▪ Web ▪ voice over IP (e.g., Skype) ▪ text messaging ▪ real-time video conferencing ▪ e-mail (e.g., Zoom) ▪ multi-user network games ▪ Internet search ▪ streaming stored video ▪ remote login (YouTube, Hulu, Netflix) ▪… Application Layer: 2-3 Creating a network app application transport write programs that: mobile network network data link physical ▪ run on (different) end systems national or global ISP ▪ communicate over network ▪ e.g., web server software communicates with browser software local or no need to write software for regional ISP network-core devices home network content application ▪ network-core devices do not run user transport network provider network datacenter application applications data link physical transport network network ▪ applications on end systems allows for data link physical rapid app development, propagation enterprise network Application Layer: 2-4 Client-server paradigm server: mobile network ▪ always-on host national or global ISP ▪ permanent IP address ▪ often in data centers, for scaling clients: local or regional ISP ▪ contact, communicate with server ▪ may be intermittently connected home network content provider ▪ may have dynamic IP addresses network datacenter network ▪ do not communicate directly with each other enterprise ▪ examples: HTTP, IMAP, FTP network Application Layer: 2-5 Peer-peer architecture ▪ no always-on server mobile network ▪ arbitrary end systems directly national or global ISP communicate ▪ peers request service from other peers, provide service in return to other peers local or regional ISP self scalability – new peers bring new service capacity, as well as new service home network content demands provider network datacenter ▪ peers are intermittently connected network and change IP addresses complex management enterprise ▪ example: P2P file sharing [BitTorrent] network Application Layer: 2-6 Processes communicating process: program running clients, servers within a host client process: process that initiates communication ▪within same host, two server process: process processes communicate that waits to be contacted using inter-process communication (defined by OS) ▪ note: applications with P2P architectures have ▪processes in different hosts client processes & communicate by exchanging server processes messages Application Layer: 2-7 Sockets ▪ process sends/receives messages to/from its socket ▪ socket analogous to door sending process shoves message out door sending process relies on transport infrastructure on other side of door to deliver message to socket at receiving process two sockets involved: one on each side application application socket controlled by process process app developer transport transport network network controlled link by OS link Internet physical physical Application Layer: 2-8 Addressing processes ▪ to receive messages, process ▪ identifier includes both IP address must have identifier and port numbers associated with ▪ host device has unique 32-bit process on host. IP address ▪ example port numbers: ▪ Q: does IP address of host on HTTP server: 80 which process runs suffice for mail server: 25 identifying the process? ▪ to send HTTP message to ▪ A: no, many processes gaia.cs.umass.edu web server: can be running on IP address: 128.119.245.12 same host port number: 80 Application Layer: 2-9 An application-layer protocol defines: ▪ types of messages exchanged, open protocols: e.g., request, response ▪ defined in RFCs, everyone ▪ message syntax: has access to protocol what fields in messages & definition how fields are delineated ▪ allows for interoperability ▪ message semantics ▪ e.g., HTTP, SMTP meaning of information in proprietary protocols: fields ▪ e.g., Skype, Zoom ▪ rules for when and how processes send & respond to messages Application Layer: 2-10 What transport service does an app need? data integrity throughput ▪ some apps (e.g., file transfer, ▪ some apps (e.g., multimedia) web transactions) require require minimum amount of 100% reliable data transfer throughput to be “effective” ▪ other apps (e.g., audio) can ▪ other apps (“elastic apps”) tolerate some loss make use of whatever throughput they get timing ▪ some apps (e.g., Internet security telephony, interactive games) ▪ encryption, data integrity, require low delay to be “effective” … Application Layer: 2-11  Transport service requirements: common apps application data loss throughput time sensitive? file transfer/download no loss elastic no e-mail no loss elastic no Web documents no loss elastic no real-time audio/video loss-tolerant audio: 5Kbps-1Mbps yes, 10’s msec video:10Kbps-5Mbps streaming audio/video loss-tolerant same as above yes, few secs interactive games loss-tolerant Kbps+ yes, 10’s msec text messaging no loss elastic yes and no Application Layer: 2-12 Internet transport protocols services TCP service: UDP service: ▪ reliable transport between sending ▪ unreliable data transfer and receiving process between sending and receiving ▪ flow control: sender won’t process overwhelm receiver ▪ does not provide: reliability, ▪ congestion control: throttle sender flow control, congestion when network overloaded control, timing, throughput guarantee, security, or ▪ connection-oriented: setup required connection setup. between client and server processes ▪ does not provide: timing, minimum throughput guarantee, security Application Layer: 2-13  Internet applications, and transport protocols application application layer protocol transport protocol file transfer/download FTP [RFC 959] TCP e-mail SMTP [RFC 5321] TCP Web documents HTTP [RFC 7230, 9110] TCP Internet telephony SIP [RFC 3261], RTP [RFC TCP or UDP 3550], or proprietary streaming audio/video HTTP [RFC 7230], DASH TCP interactive games WOW, FPS (proprietary) UDP or TCP Application Layer: 2-14 Application layer: overview ▪ P2P applications ▪ Principles of network ▪ video streaming and content applications distribution networks ▪ Web and HTTP ▪ socket programming with ▪ E-mail, SMTP, IMAP UDP and TCP ▪ The Domain Name System DNS Application Layer: 2-15 Web and HTTP First, a quick review… ▪ web page consists of objects, each of which can be stored on different Web servers ▪ object can be HTML file, JPEG image, Java applet, audio file,… ▪ web page consists of base HTML-file which includes several referenced objects, each addressable by a URL, e.g., www.someschool.edu/someDept/pic.gif host name path name Application Layer: 2-16 HTTP overview HTTP: hypertext transfer protocol ▪ Web’s application-layer protocol ▪ client/server model: PC running client: browser that requests, Firefox browser receives (using HTTP protocol), and “displays” Web objects server running server: Web server sends (using Apache Web HTTP protocol) objects in response server to requests iPhone running Safari browser Application Layer: 2-17 HTTP overview (continued) HTTP uses TCP: HTTP is “stateless” ▪ client initiates TCP connection ▪ server maintains no (creates socket) to server, port 80 information about past client ▪ server accepts TCP connection requests from client aside protocols that maintain ▪ HTTP messages (application-layer “state” are complex! protocol messages) exchanged ▪ past history (state) must be between browser (HTTP client) and maintained Web server (HTTP server) ▪ if server/client crashes, their ▪ TCP connection closed views of “state” may be inconsistent, must be reconciled Application Layer: 2-18 HTTP connections: two types Non-persistent HTTP Persistent HTTP 1. TCP connection opened 1. TCP connection opened to 2. at most one object sent a server over TCP connection 2. multiple objects can be 3. TCP connection closed sent over single TCP connection between downloading multiple objects client, and that server required multiple connections 3. TCP connection closed Application Layer: 2-19  Non-persistent HTTP: example User enters URL: www.someSchool.edu/someDepartment/home.index (containing text, references to 10 jpeg images) 1a. HTTP client initiates TCP connection to HTTP server 1b. HTTP server at host (process) at www.someSchool.edu on www.someSchool.edu waiting for TCP port 80 connection at port 80 “accepts” connection, notifying client 2. HTTP client sends HTTP request message (containing URL) into TCP connection 3. HTTP server receives request message, socket. Message indicates forms response message containing time that client wants object requested object, and sends message someDepartment/home.index into its socket Application Layer: 2-20  Non-persistent HTTP: example (cont.) User enters URL: www.someSchool.edu/someDepartment/home.index (containing text, references to 10 jpeg images) 4. HTTP server closes TCP 5. HTTP client receives response connection. message containing html file, displays html. Parsing html file, finds 10 referenced jpeg objects 6. Steps 1-5 repeated for each of 10 jpeg objects time Application Layer: 2-21 Non-persistent HTTP: response time RTT (definition): time for a small packet to travel from client to initiate TCP server and back connection RTT HTTP response time (per object): ▪ one RTT to initiate TCP connection request file ▪ one RTT for HTTP request and first few RTT time to transmit bytes of HTTP response to return file file received ▪ object/file transmission time time time Non-persistent HTTP response time = 2RTT+ file transmission time Application Layer: 2-22 Persistent HTTP (HTTP 1.1) Non-persistent HTTP issues: Persistent HTTP (HTTP1.1): ▪ requires 2 RTTs per object ▪ server leaves connection open after ▪ OS overhead for each TCP sending response connection ▪ subsequent HTTP messages ▪ browsers often open multiple between same client/server sent parallel TCP connections to over open connection fetch referenced objects in ▪ client sends requests as soon as it parallel encounters a referenced object ▪ as little as one RTT for all the referenced objects (cutting response time in half) Application Layer: 2-23  HTTP request message ▪ two types of HTTP messages: request, response ▪ HTTP request message: ASCII (human-readable format) carriage return character line-feed character request line (GET, POST, GET /index.html HTTP/1.1\r\n HEAD commands) Host: www-net.cs.umass.edu\r\n User-Agent: Mozilla/5.0 (Macintosh; Intel Mac OS X 10.15; rv:80.0) Gecko/20100101 Firefox/80.0 \r\n header Accept: text/html,application/xhtml+xml\r\n lines Accept-Language: en-us,en;q=0.5\r\n Accept-Encoding: gzip,deflate\r\n Connection: keep-alive\r\n \r\n carriage return, line feed at start of line indicates end of header lines Application Layer: 2-24 HTTP request message: general format method sp URL sp version cr lf request line header field name value cr lf header ~ ~ ~ ~ lines header field name value cr lf cr lf ~ ~ entity body ~ ~ body Application Layer: 2-25 Other HTTP request messages POST method: HEAD method: ▪ web page often includes form ▪ requests headers (only) that input would be returned if specified ▪ user input sent from client to URL were requested with an server in entity body of HTTP HTTP GET method. POST request message PUT method: ▪ uploads new file (object) to server GET method (for sending data to server): ▪ completely replaces file that exists ▪ include user data in URL field of HTTP at specified URL with content in GET request message (following a ‘?’): entity body of POST HTTP request www.somesite.com/animalsearch?monkeys&banana message Application Layer: 2-26  GET vs. POST GET method POST Method ▪ Data is appended to the URL as ▪ Data is in HTTP message body query string ▪ Hacking is easy. Data can be ▪ Hacking is not easy. Data cannot viewed by users and is saved in be viewed by users and not browser history or server logs saved in histoy or server logs ▪ Only ASCII charachter data type is ▪ No charachter restriction and no allowed and cannot exceed 2048 amount of data restriction byte Application Layer: 2-27 HTTP response message status line (protocol HTTP/1.1 200 OK status code status phrase) Date: Tue, 08 Sep 2020 00:53:20 GMT Server: Apache/2.4.6 (CentOS) OpenSSL/1.0.2k-fips PHP/7.4.9 mod_perl/2.0.11 Perl/v5.16.3 header Last-Modified: Tue, 01 Mar 2016 18:57:50 GMT lines ETag: "a5b-52d015789ee9e" Accept-Ranges: bytes Content-Length: 2651 Content-Type: text/html; charset=UTF-8 \r\n data, e.g., requested data data data data data... HTML file Application Layer: 2-28 HTTP response status codes ▪ status code appears in 1st line in server-to-client response message. ▪ some sample codes: 200 OK request succeeded, requested object later in this message 301 Moved Permanently requested object moved, new location specified later in this message (in Location: field) 400 Bad Request request msg not understood by server 404 Not Found requested document not found on this server 505 HTTP Version Not Supported Application Layer: 2-29 Maintaining user/server state: cookies Web sites and client browser use Example: cookies to maintain some state ▪ Susan uses browser on laptop, visits specific e-commerce site between transactions for first time four components: ▪ when initial HTTP requests 1) cookie header line of HTTP response arrives at site, site creates: message unique ID (aka “cookie”) entry in back-end database 2) cookie header line in next HTTP for ID request message subsequent HTTP requests 3) cookie file kept on user’s host, from Susan to this site will managed by user’s browser contain cookie ID value, 4) back-end database at Web site allowing site to “identify” Susan Application Layer: 2-30 Maintaining user/server state: cookies client Amazon server ebay 8734 usual HTTP request msg Amazon server cookie file creates ID usual HTTP response 1678 for user backend create ebay 8734 set-cookie: 1678 entry database amazon 1678 usual HTTP request msg cookie: 1678 cookie- access specific usual HTTP response msg action one week later: access ebay 8734 usual HTTP request msg amazon 1678 cookie: 1678 cookie- specific usual HTTP response msg action time time Application Layer: 2-31 HTTP cookies: comments aside What cookies can be used for: cookies and privacy: ▪ authorization ▪ cookies permit sites to ▪ shopping carts learn a lot about you on their site. ▪ recommendations ▪ third party persistent ▪ user session state (Web e-mail) cookies (tracking cookies) allow common identity (cookie value) to be tracked across multiple web sites Application Layer: 2-32 Web caches Goal: satisfy client requests without involving origin server ▪ user configures browser to point to a (local) Web cache Web cache ▪ browser sends all HTTP client origin server requests to cache if object in cache: cache returns object to client else cache requests object client from origin server, caches received object, then returns object to client Application Layer: 2-33 Web caches (aka proxy servers) ▪ Web cache acts as both Why Web caching? client and server ▪ reduce response time for client server for original requesting client request client to origin server cache is closer to client ▪ reduce traffic on an institution’s ▪ server tells cache about object’s allowable caching in access link response header: ▪ Internet is dense with caches enables “poor” content providers to more effectively deliver content Application Layer: 2-34 Caching example Scenario: ▪ access link rate: 1.54 Mbps origin ▪ RTT from institutional router to server: 2 sec servers ▪ web object size: 100K bits public Internet ▪ average request rate from browsers to origin servers: 15/sec ▪ avg data rate to browsers: 1.50 Mbps 1.54 Mbps access link Performance: problem: large ▪ access link utilization = 0.97 queueing delays institutional network at high utilization! 1 Gbps LAN ▪ LAN utilization: 0.0015 ▪ end-end delay = Internet delay + access link delay + LAN delay = 2 sec + minutes + µsecs Application Layer: 2-35 Option 1: buy a faster access link Scenario: 154 Mbps ▪ access link rate: 1.54 Mbps origin ▪ RTT from institutional router to server: 2 sec servers ▪ web object size: 100K bits public Internet ▪ average request rate from browsers to origin servers: 15/sec ▪ avg data rate to browsers: 1.50 Mbps 154 Mbps 1.54 Mbps access link Performance: ▪ access link utilization =.97.0097 institutional network 1 Gbps LAN ▪ LAN utilization:.0015 ▪ end-end delay = Internet delay + access link delay + LAN delay = 2 sec + minutes + usecs Cost: faster access link (expensive!) msecs Application Layer: 2-36 Option 2: install a web cache Scenario: ▪ access link rate: 1.54 Mbps origin ▪ RTT from institutional router to server: 2 sec servers ▪ web object size: 100K bits public Internet ▪ average request rate from browsers to origin servers: 15/sec ▪ avg data rate to browsers: 1.50 Mbps 1.54 Mbps access link Cost: web cache (cheap!) institutional network Performance: 1 Gbps LAN ▪ LAN utilization:.? How to compute link ▪ access link utilization = ? utilization, delay? ▪ average end-end delay = ? local web cache Application Layer: 2-37 Calculating access link utilization, end-end delay with cache: suppose cache hit rate is 0.4: ▪ 40% requests served by cache, with low origin servers (msec) delay public ▪ 60% requests satisfied at origin Internet rate to browsers over access link = 0.6 * 1.50 Mbps = 0.9 Mbps 1.54 Mbps access link utilization = 0.9/1.54 = 0.58 means access link low (msec) queueing delay at access link institutional ▪ average end-end delay: network 1 Gbps LAN = 0.6 * (delay from origin servers) + 0.4 * (delay when satisfied at cache) = 0.6 (2.01) + 0.4 (~msecs) = ~ 1.2 secs local web cache lower average end-end delay than with 154 Mbps link (and cheaper too!) Application Layer: 2-38 Browser caching: Conditional GET client server Goal: don’t send object if browser HTTP request msg has up-to-date cached version If-modified-since: object not no object transmission delay (or use modified of network resources) HTTP response before HTTP/1.0 ▪ client: specify date of browser- 304 Not Modified cached copy in HTTP request If-modified-since: ▪ server: response contains no HTTP request msg If-modified-since: object object if browser-cached copy is modified up-to-date: HTTP response after HTTP/1.0 200 OK HTTP/1.0 304 Not Modified Application Layer: 2-39 HTTP/2 Key goal: decreased delay in multi-object HTTP requests HTTP1.1: introduced multiple, pipelined GETs over single TCP connection ▪ server responds in-order (FCFS: first-come-first-served scheduling) to GET requests ▪ with FCFS, small object may have to wait for transmission (head-of- line (HOL) blocking) behind large object(s) ▪ loss recovery (retransmitting lost TCP segments) stalls object transmission Application Layer: 2-40 HTTP/2 Key goal: decreased delay in multi-object HTTP requests HTTP/2: [RFC 7540, 2015] increased flexibility at server in sending objects to client: ▪ methods, status codes, most header fields unchanged from HTTP 1.1 ▪ transmission order of requested objects based on client-specified object priority (not necessarily FCFS) ▪ push unrequested objects to client ▪ divide objects into frames, schedule frames to mitigate HOL blocking Application Layer: 2-41 HTTP/2: mitigating HOL blocking HTTP 1.1: client requests 1 large object (e.g., video file) and 3 smaller objects server GET O4 GET O3 GET O 2 GET O1 object data requested client O1 O2 O1 O3 O2 O3 O4 O4 objects delivered in order requested: O2, O3, O4 wait behind O1 Application Layer: 2-42 HTTP/2: mitigating HOL blocking HTTP/2: objects divided into frames, frame transmission interleaved server GET O4 GET O3 GET O 2 GET O1 object data requested client O2 O4 O3 O1 O2 O3 O1 O4 O2, O3, O4 delivered quickly, O1 slightly delayed Application Layer: 2-43 HTTP/2 to HTTP/3 HTTP/2 over single TCP connection means: ▪ recovery from packet loss still stalls all object transmissions as in HTTP 1.1, browsers have incentive to open multiple parallel TCP connections to reduce stalling, increase overall throughput ▪ no security over vanilla TCP connection ▪ HTTP/3: adds security, per object error- and congestion- control (more pipelining) over UDP more on HTTP/3 in transport layer Application Layer: 2-44 Application layer: overview ▪ P2P applications ▪ Principles of network ▪ video streaming and content applications distribution networks ▪ Web and HTTP ▪ socket programming with ▪ E-mail, SMTP, IMAP UDP and TCP ▪ The Domain Name System DNS Application Layer: 2-45 E-mail user agent Three major components: mail user ▪ user agents server agent ▪ mail servers SMTP mail user agent ▪ simple mail transfer protocol: SMTP SMTP server SMTP user User Agent mail agent ▪ a.k.a. “mail reader” server user ▪ composing, editing, reading mail messages agent user ▪ e.g., Outlook, iPhone mail client agent outgoing ▪ outgoing, incoming messages stored on message queue server user mailbox Application Layer: 2-46 E-mail: mail servers user agent mail servers: mail user server ▪ mailbox contains incoming agent messages for user SMTP mail user server agent ▪ message queue of outgoing (to be SMTP sent) mail messages user SMTP agent SMTP protocol between mail mail server servers to send email messages user agent ▪ client: sending mail server user ▪ “server”: receiving mail server agent outgoing message queue user mailbox Application Layer: 2-47 Scenario: Alice sends e-mail to Bob 1) Alice uses UA to compose e-mail 4) SMTP client sends Alice’s message message “to” [email protected] over the TCP connection 2) Alice’s UA sends message to her mail 5) Bob’s mail server places the server using SMTP; message placed in message in Bob’s mailbox message queue 3) client side of SMTP at mail server opens 6) Bob invokes his user agent to TCP connection with Bob’s mail server read message 1 user mail user mail agent agent server server 2 3 6 4 5 Alice’s mail server Bob’s mail server Application Layer: 2-48 SMTP RFC (5321) “client” SMTP server “server” SMTP server ▪ uses TCP to reliably transfer email message initiate TCP from client (mail server initiating connection connection) to server, port 25 RTT TCP connection ▪ direct transfer: sending server (acting like client) initiated to receiving server ▪ three phases of transfer (after TCP opens) 220 SMTP handshaking (greeting) SMTP HELLO handshaking SMTP transfer of messages 250 Hello SMTP closure ▪ command/response interaction (like HTTP) SMTP commands: ASCII text transfers response: status code and phrase time Application Layer: 2-49 Sample SMTP interaction S: 220 hamburger.edu C: HELO crepes.fr S: 250 Hello crepes.fr, pleased to meet you C: MAIL FROM: S: 250 [email protected]... Sender ok C: RCPT TO: S: 250 [email protected]... Recipient ok C: DATA S: 354 Enter mail, end with "." on a line by itself C: Do you like ketchup? C: How about pickles? C:. S: 250 Message accepted for delivery C: QUIT S: 221 hamburger.edu closing connection Application Layer: 2-50 SMTP: observations comparison with HTTP: ▪ HTTP: client pull ▪ SMTP uses persistent connections ▪ SMTP: client push ▪ HTTP uses either persistent or non-persistent connections ▪ HTTP: each object encapsulated ▪ both have ASCII in its own response message command/response interaction, status codes ▪ SMTP: multiple objects sent in multipart message Application Layer: 2-51 Mail message format SMTP: protocol for exchanging e-mail messages, defined in RFC 5321 (like RFC 7231 defines HTTP) RFC 2822 defines syntax for e-mail message itself (like HTML defines syntax for web documents) ▪ header lines, e.g., header blank To: line From: Subject: body ▪ Body: the “message”, ASCII characters only Application Layer: 2-52  Retrieving email: mail access protocols user e-mail access user SMTP SMTP protocol agent agent (e.g., IMAP, HTTP) sender’s e-mail receiver’s e-mail server server ▪ SMTP: delivery/storage of e-mail messages to receiver’s server ▪ mail access protocol: retrieval from server IMAP: Internet Mail Access Protocol [RFC 3501]: messages stored on server, IMAP provides retrieval, deletion, folders of stored messages on server ▪ HTTP: gmail, Hotmail, Yahoo!Mail, etc. provides web-based interface on top of STMP (to send), IMAP (or POP) to retrieve e-mail messages Application Layer: 2-53 Application Layer: Overview ▪ P2P applications ▪ Principles of network ▪ video streaming and content applications distribution networks ▪ Web and HTTP ▪ socket programming with ▪ E-mail, SMTP, IMAP UDP and TCP ▪ The Domain Name System DNS Application Layer: 2-54 DNS: Domain Name System people: many identifiers: Domain Name System (DNS): social security no, name, ▪ distributed database implemented in passport # hierarchy of many name servers Internet hosts, routers: ▪ application-layer protocol: hosts, DNS IP address (32 bit) - used for servers communicate to resolve addressing datagrams names (address/name translation) “name”, e.g., cs.umass.edu - used by humans note: core Internet function, implemented as application-layer protocol complexity at network’s “edge” Application Layer: 2-55 DNS: services, structure DNS services: ▪ hostname-to-IP-address translation ▪ host aliasing Q: Why not centralize DNS? canonical, alias names ▪ single point of failure ▪ mail server aliasing ▪ traffic volume ▪ distant centralized database ▪ load distribution ▪ maintenance replicated Web servers: many IP addresses correspond to one name Application Layer: 2-56 Thinking about the DNS humongous distributed database: ▪ ~ billion records, each simple handles many trillions of queries/day: ▪ many more reads than writes ▪ performance matters: almost every Internet transaction interacts with DNS - msecs count! organizationally, physically decentralized: ▪ millions of different organizations responsible for their records “bulletproof”: reliability, security Application Layer: 2-57  DNS: a distributed, hierarchical database Root DNS Servers Root … ….com DNS servers.org DNS servers.edu DNS servers Top Level Domain … … … … yahoo.com amazon.com pbs.org nyu.edu umass.edu DNS servers DNS servers DNS servers DNS servers DNS servers Authoritative Client wants IP address for www.amazon.com; 1st approximation: ▪ client queries root server to find.com DNS server ▪ client queries.com DNS server to get amazon.com DNS server ▪ client queries amazon.com DNS server to get IP address for www.amazon.com Application Layer: 2-58 Local DNS name servers ▪ when host makes DNS query, it is sent to its local DNS server Local DNS server returns reply, answering: from its local cache of recent name-to-address translation pairs (possibly out of date!) forwarding request into DNS hierarchy for resolution ▪ local DNS server doesn’t strictly belong to hierarchy Application Layer: 2-59 DNS name resolution: iterated query root DNS server Example: host at engineering.nyu.edu wants IP address for gaia.cs.umass.edu 2 3 TLD DNS server Iterated query: 1 4 ▪ contacted server replies 8 5 with name of server to requesting host at local DNS server contact engineering.nyu.edu dns.nyu.edu gaia.cs.umass.edu ▪ “I don’t know this name, 7 6 but ask this server” authoritative DNS server dns.cs.umass.edu Application Layer: 2-60 DNS name resolution: recursive query root DNS server Example: host at engineering.nyu.edu wants IP address for gaia.cs.umass.edu 2 3 7 6 Recursive query: 1 TLD DNS server ▪ puts burden of name 8 resolution on requesting host at local DNS server 5 4 engineering.nyu.edu dns.nyu.edu contacted name gaia.cs.umass.edu server ▪ heavy load at upper authoritative DNS server levels of hierarchy? dns.cs.umass.edu Application Layer: 2-61 Caching DNS Information ▪ once (any) name server learns mapping, it caches mapping, and immediately returns a cached mapping in response to a query caching improves response time cache entries timeout (disappear) after some time (TTL) ▪ cached entries may be out-of-date if named host changes IP address, may not be known Internet- wide until all TTLs expire! best-effort name-to-address translation! Application Layer: 2-62 DNS records DNS: distributed database storing resource records (RR) RR format: (name, value, type, ttl) type=A type=CNAME ▪ name is hostname ▪ name is alias name for some “canonical” ▪ value is IP address (the real) name ▪ www.ibm.com is really servereast.backup2.ibm.com type=NS ▪ value is canonical name ▪ name is domain (e.g., foo.com) ▪ value is hostname of type=MX authoritative name server for ▪ value is name of SMTP mail this domain server associated with name Application Layer: 2-63 DNS protocol messages DNS query and reply messages, both have same format: 2 bytes 2 bytes message header: identification flags ▪ identification: 16 bit # for query, # questions # answer RRs reply to query uses same # # authority RRs # additional RRs ▪ flags: query or reply questions (variable # of questions) recursion desired answers (variable # of RRs) recursion available reply is authoritative authority (variable # of RRs) additional info (variable # of RRs) Application Layer: 2-64  DNS protocol messages DNS query and reply messages, both have same format: 2 bytes 2 bytes identification flags # questions # answer RRs # authority RRs # additional RRs name, type fields for a query questions (variable # of questions) RRs in response to query answers (variable # of RRs) records for authoritative servers authority (variable # of RRs) additional “ helpful” info that may additional info (variable # of RRs) be used Application Layer: 2-65 DNS security DDoS attacks Spoofing attacks ▪ bombard root servers with ▪ intercept DNS queries, traffic returning bogus replies not successful to date ▪ DNS cache poisoning traffic filtering ▪ RFC 4033: DNSSEC authentication services local DNS servers cache IPs of TLD servers, allowing root server bypass ▪ bombard TLD servers potentially more dangerous Application Layer: 2-66 Application Layer: Overview ▪ P2P applications ▪ Principles of network ▪ video streaming and content applications distribution networks ▪ Web and HTTP ▪ socket programming with ▪ E-mail, SMTP, IMAP UDP and TCP ▪ The Domain Name System DNS Application Layer: 2-67 Peer-to-peer (P2P) architecture ▪ no always-on server mobile network ▪ arbitrary end systems directly national or global ISP communicate ▪ peers request service from other peers, provide service in return to other peers local or regional ISP self scalability – new peers bring new service capacity, and new service demands home network content provider ▪ peers are intermittently connected network datacenter network and change IP addresses complex management ▪ examples: P2P file sharing (BitTorrent), enterprise network streaming (KanKan), VoIP (Skype) Application Layer: 2-68 File distribution: client-server vs P2P Q: how much time to distribute file (size F) from one server to N peers? peer upload/download capacity is limited resource us: server upload capacity di: peer i download file, size F u1 d1 u2 capacity us d2 server di uN network (with abundant bandwidth) ui dN ui: peer i upload capacity Introduction: 1-69  File distribution time: client-server ▪ server transmission: must sequentially send (upload) N file copies: F time to send one copy: F/us us time to send N copies: NF/us di network ui ▪ client: each client must download file copy dmin = min client download rate min client download time: F/dmin time to distribute F to N clients using Dc-s > max{NF/us,,F/dmin} client-server approach increases linearly in N Introduction: 1-70 File distribution time: P2P ▪ server transmission: must upload at least one copy: F time to send one copy: F/us us ▪ client: each client must download di network file copy ui min client download time: F/dmin ▪ clients: as aggregate must download NF bits max upload rate (limiting max download rate) is us + ui time to distribute F to N clients using DP2P > max{F/us,,F/dmin,,NF/(us + ui)} P2P approach increases linearly in N … … but so does this, as each peer brings service capacity Application Layer: 2-71 P2P file distribution: BitTorrent ▪ file divided into 256Kb chunks ▪ peers in torrent send/receive file chunks tracker: tracks peers torrent: group of peers participating in torrent exchanging chunks of a file Alice arrives … … obtains list of peers from tracker … and begins exchanging file chunks with peers in torrent Application Layer: 2-72 P2P file distribution: BitTorrent ▪ peer joining torrent: has no chunks, but will accumulate them over time from other peers registers with tracker to get list of peers, connects to subset of peers (“neighbors”) ▪ while downloading, peer uploads chunks to other peers ▪ peer may change peers with whom it exchanges chunks ▪ churn: peers may come and go ▪ once peer has entire file, it may (selfishly) leave or (altruistically) remain in torrent Application Layer: 2-73 BitTorrent: requesting, sending file chunks Requesting chunks: Sending chunks: tit-for-tat ▪ at any given time, different ▪ Alice sends chunks to those four peers have different peers currently sending her chunks subsets of file chunks at highest rate ▪ periodically, Alice asks other peers are choked by Alice (do each peer for list of chunks not receive chunks from her) that they have re-evaluate top 4 every 10 secs ▪ Alice requests missing ▪ every 30 secs: randomly select chunks from peers, rarest another peer, starts sending first chunks “optimistically unchoke” this peer newly chosen peer may join top 4 Application Layer: 2-74 BitTorrent: tit-for-tat (1) Alice “optimistically unchokes” Bob (2) Alice becomes one of Bob’s top-four providers; Bob reciprocates (3) Bob becomes one of Alice’s top-four providers higher upload rate: find better trading partners, get file faster ! Application Layer: 2-75 Application layer: overview ▪ P2P applications ▪ Principles of network ▪ video streaming and content applications distribution networks ▪ Web and HTTP ▪ socket programming with ▪ E-mail, SMTP, IMAP UDP and TCP ▪ The Domain Name System DNS Application Layer: 2-76 Video Streaming and CDNs: context ▪ stream video traffic: major consumer of Internet bandwidth Netflix, YouTube, Amazon Prime: 80% of residential ISP traffic (2020) ▪ challenge: scale - how to reach ~1B users? ▪ challenge: heterogeneity ▪ different users have different capabilities (e.g., wired versus mobile; bandwidth rich versus bandwidth poor) ▪ solution: distributed, application-level infrastructure Application Layer: 2-77 Multimedia: video spatial coding example: instead of sending N values of same color (all purple), send only two values: color value (purple) and ▪ video: sequence of images number of repeated values (N) displayed at constant rate …………………….. ……………….……. e.g., 24 images/sec ▪ digital image: array of pixels each pixel represented by bits ▪ coding: use redundancy within and frame i between images to decrease # bits used to encode image spatial (within image) temporal coding example: instead of sending temporal (from one image to complete frame at i+1, send only differences from next) frame i frame i+1 Application Layer: 2-78 Multimedia: video spatial coding example: instead of sending N values of same color (all purple), send only two values: color value (purple) and ▪ CBR: (constant bit rate): video number of repeated values (N) encoding rate fixed …………………….. ……………….……. ▪ VBR: (variable bit rate): video encoding rate changes as amount of spatial, temporal coding changes frame i temporal coding example: instead of sending complete frame at i+1, send only differences from frame i frame i+1 Application Layer: 2-79 Streaming stored video simple scenario: Internet video server client (stored video) Main challenges: ▪ server-to-client bandwidth will vary over time, with changing network congestion levels (in house, access network, network core, video server) ▪ packet loss, delay due to congestion will delay playout, or result in poor video quality Application Layer: 2-80 Streaming stored video 2. video sent 1. video 3. video received, played out at client recorded (30 frames/sec) (e.g., 30 time network delay frames/sec) (fixed in this example) streaming: at this time, client playing out early part of video, while server still sending later part of video Application Layer: 2-81 Streaming stored video: challenges ▪ continuous playout constraint: during client video playout, playout timing must match original timing … but network delays are variable (jitter), so will need client-side buffer to match continuous playout constraint ▪ other challenges: client interactivity: pause, fast-forward, rewind, jump through video video packets may be lost, retransmitted Application Layer: 2-82 Streaming stored video: playout buffering constant bit rate video client video constant bit transmission reception rate video playout at client variable buffered network video delay client playout time delay ▪client-side buffering and playout delay: compensate for network-added delay, delay jitter Application Layer: 2-83  Dynamic, Adaptive Streaming multimedia: DASH Streaming over HTTP server: ▪ divides video file into multiple chunks... ▪ each chunk encoded at multiple different rates... ▪ different rate encodings stored in different files ? ▪ files replicated in various CDN nodes... ▪ manifest file: provides URLs for different chunks client client: ▪ periodically estimates server-to-client bandwidth ▪ consulting manifest, requests one chunk at a time chooses maximum coding rate sustainable given current bandwidth can choose different coding rates at different points in time (depending on available bandwidth at time), and from different servers Application Layer: 2-84 Streaming multimedia: DASH ▪“intelligence” at client: client determines... when to request chunk (so that buffer... starvation, or overflow does not occur) ? what encoding rate to request (higher... client quality when more bandwidth available) where to request chunk (can request from URL server that is “close” to client or has high available bandwidth) Streaming video = encoding + DASH + playout buffering Application Layer: 2-85 Content distribution networks (CDNs) challenge: how to stream content (selected from millions of videos) to hundreds of thousands of simultaneous users? ▪ option 1: single, large “mega- server” single point of failure point of network congestion long (and possibly congested) path to distant clients ….quite simply: this solution doesn’t scale Application Layer: 2-86 Content distribution networks (CDNs) challenge: how to stream content (selected from millions of videos) to hundreds of thousands of simultaneous users? ▪ option 2: store/serve multiple copies of videos at multiple geographically distributed sites (CDN) enter deep: push CDN servers deep into many access networks close to users Akamai: 240,000 servers deployed in > 120 countries (2015) bring home: smaller number (10’s) of larger clusters in POPs (Point of Presence) near access nets used by Limelight Application Layer: 2-87 Application Layer: Overview ▪ P2P applications ▪ Principles of network ▪ video streaming and content applications distribution networks ▪ Web and HTTP ▪ socket programming with ▪ E-mail, SMTP, IMAP UDP and TCP ▪ The Domain Name System DNS Application Layer: 2-88 Socket programming goal: learn how to build client/server applications that communicate using sockets socket: door between application process and end-end-transport protocol application application socket controlled by process process app developer transport transport network network controlled link by OS link Internet physical physical Application Layer: 2-89 Socket programming Two socket types for two transport services: ▪ UDP: unreliable datagram ▪ TCP: reliable, byte stream-oriented Application Example: 1. client reads a line of characters (data) from its keyboard and sends data to server 2. server receives the data and converts characters to uppercase 3. server sends modified data to client 4. client receives modified data and displays line on its screen Application Layer: 2-90 Socket programming with UDP UDP: no “connection” between client and server: ▪ no handshaking before sending data ▪ sender explicitly attaches IP destination address and port # to each packet ▪ receiver extracts sender IP address and port # from received packet UDP: transmitted data may be lost or received out-of-order Application viewpoint: ▪ UDP provides unreliable transfer of groups of bytes (“datagrams”) between client and server processes Application Layer: 2-91 Client/server socket interaction: UDP server (running on serverIP) client create socket: create socket, port= x: clientSocket = serverSocket = socket(AF_INET,SOCK_DGRAM) socket(AF_INET,SOCK_DGRAM) Create datagram with serverIP address And port=x; send datagram via read datagram from clientSocket serverSocket write reply to serverSocket read datagram from specifying clientSocket client address, port number close clientSocket Application Layer: 2-92  Example app: UDP client Python UDPClient include Python’s socket library from socket import * serverName = 'hostname' serverPort = 12000 create UDP socket clientSocket = socket(AF_INET, SOCK_DGRAM) get user keyboard input message = input('Input lowercase sentence:') attach server name, port to message; send into socket clientSocket.sendto(message.encode(), (serverName, serverPort)) read reply data (bytes) from socket modifiedMessage, serverAddress = clientSocket.recvfrom(2048) print out received string and close socket print(modifiedMessage.decode()) clientSocket.close() Application Layer: 2-93 Example app: UDP server Python UDPServer from socket import * serverPort = 12000 create UDP socket serverSocket = socket(AF_INET, SOCK_DGRAM) bind socket to local port number 12000 serverSocket.bind(('', serverPort)) print('The server is ready to receive') loop forever while True: Read from UDP socket into message, getting message, clientAddress = serverSocket.recvfrom(2048) client’s address (client IP and port) modifiedMessage = message.decode().upper() send upper case string back to this client serverSocket.sendto(modifiedMessage.encode(), clientAddress) Application Layer: 2-94 Socket programming with TCP Client must contact server ▪ when contacted by client, server ▪ server process must first be TCP creates new socket for server running process to communicate with that ▪ server must have created socket particular client (door) that welcomes client’s allows server to talk with multiple contact clients Client contacts server by: client source port # and IP address used to distinguish clients (more in Chap 3) ▪ Creating TCP socket, specifying IP address, port number of server process Application viewpoint ▪ when client creates socket: client TCP provides reliable, in-order TCP establishes connection to byte-stream transfer (“pipe”) server TCP between client and server processes Application Layer: 2-95 Client/server socket interaction: TCP server (running on hostid) client create socket, port=x, for incoming request: serverSocket = socket() wait for incoming create socket, connection request TCP connect to hostid, port=x connectionSocket = connection setup clientSocket = socket() serverSocket.accept() send request using read request from clientSocket connectionSocket write reply to connectionSocket read reply from clientSocket close connectionSocket close clientSocket Application Layer: 2-96 Example app: TCP client Python TCPClient from socket import * serverName = 'servername' serverPort = 12000 create TCP socket for server, clientSocket = socket(AF_INET, SOCK_STREAM) remote port 12000 clientSocket.connect((serverName,serverPort)) sentence = input('Input lowercase sentence:') clientSocket.send(sentence.encode()) No need to attach server name, port modifiedSentence = clientSocket.recv(1024) print ('From Server:', modifiedSentence.decode()) clientSocket.close() Application Layer: 2-97 Example app: TCP server Python TCPServer from socket import * serverPort = 12000 create TCP welcoming socket serverSocket = socket(AF_INET,SOCK_STREAM) serverSocket.bind(('',serverPort)) server begins listening for incoming TCP requests serverSocket.listen(1) print('The server is ready to receive') loop forever while True: server waits on accept() for incoming connectionSocket, addr = serverSocket.accept() requests, new socket created on return read bytes from socket (but sentence = connectionSocket.recv(1024).decode() not address as in UDP) capitalizedSentence = sentence.upper() connectionSocket.send(capitalizedSentence. encode()) close connection to this client (but not connectionSocket.close() welcoming socket) Application Layer: 2-98