Sustainable Design, Engineering, and Innovation PDF

chapter /One Sustainable Design, Engineering, and Innovation Julie Beth Zimmerman and Chapter Contents James R. Mihelcic 1.1 Background: Evolution from This chapter discusses the evolution of E...

chapter /One Sustainable Design, Engineering, and Innovation Julie Beth Zimmerman and Chapter Contents James R. Mihelcic 1.1 Background: Evolution from This chapter discusses the evolution of Environmental Protection to protecting human health and the envi- Sustainability ronment from regulatory approaches 1.2 The Path Forward: to sustainable development, high- Operationalizing Sustainability AL lighting critical opportunities for engi- 1.3 Engineering for Sustainability neers to design appropriate, resilient 1.4 Measuring Sustainability RI solutions. Definitions for sustainable development and design are pre- 1.5 Policies Driving Green TE sented. Several emerging topics are Engineering and Sustainability presented—green chemistry, biomimi- 1.6 Designing Tomorrow cry, green engineering, life cycle think- ing, and systems thinking—offering enhancements to engineering funda- MA mentals leading to rigorous and sus- Learning Objectives D tainable design solutions. 1. Describe the evolution of the protection of human health and the environment from regulatory approaches to sustainability. TE 2. Relate The Limits to Growth, “The Tragedy of the Commons,” and the definition of carrying capacity to sustainable GH development. 3. Define sustainability, sustainable development, and sustainable engineering in your own words and according to RI others. 4. Redefine engineering problems in a balanced social, economic, PY and environmental context. 5. Apply life cycle thinking and systems thinking to problem definition and the design and assessment of proposed CO solutions. 6. Differentiate between traditional indicators and sustainability indicators that measure progress toward achieving the goal of sustainability. # Ziutograf/iStockphoto 7. Describe several frameworks for sustainable design and understand the importance of design and innovation in advancing sustainability. 8. Discuss the role of regulations and other policy tools, such as voluntary programs, in advancing environmental and human health protection as well as sustainability. 1  1.1 Background: Evolution from Environmental Protection to Sustainability In 1962, Rachel Carson (Application 1.1) published Silent Spring, estab- lishing the case that there may be reason to be concerned about the impacts of pesticides and environmental pollution on natural systems and human health. Though as early as 1948, there was an industrial air pollution smog release in the milltown of Donora (Pennsylvania) that killed 20 and injured thousands, it was later, in the late 1960s and early 1970s, that numerous clear and startling visual realities of human impacts on the environment took place. This included smog episodes in Los Angeles that obscured visibility, the Cuyahoga River (Ohio) catching on fire in 1969, and the toxic waste and subsequent health effects in neighborhoods such as Love Canal in Niagara Falls, New York. Through a shared societal value and a growing environmental social movement, the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) was created in 1972. This consolidated in one agency a variety of federal research, monitoring, standard-setting, and enforcement activities with the mis- sion of “protecting human health and the environment.” During this same time, Congress passed many of the fundamental and critical environmental regulations, such as the National Environmental Pro- tection Act (NEPA), the Clean Air Act, the Water Pollution Control Act, Wilderness Protection Act, and the Endangered Species Act. The Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) is an agency of the U.S. federal government that was created for the purpose of protecting human health and the environment by writing and enforcing regula- tions based on laws passed by Congress (Application 1.2). Its Application /1.1 Rachel Carson and the Modern Environmental Movement Rachel Carson is consid- a scientist, she excelled at communicating complex ered one of the leaders of scientific concepts to the public through clear and the modern environmen- accurate writing. She wrote several books, including tal movement. She was The Sea Around Us (first published in 1951) and Silent born 15 miles northeast Spring (first published in 1962). of Pittsburgh in the year Silent Spring was a commercial success soon after its 1907. Educated at the publication. It visually captured the fact that songbirds undergraduate and grad- were facing reproductive failure and early death uate levels in science and because of manufacturing and prolific use of chemicals zoology, she first worked such as DDT that had bioaccumulated in their small for the government bodies. Some historians believe that Silent Spring was agency that eventually the initial catalyst that led to the creation of the modern Rachel Carson at Hawk Mountain, became the U.S. Fish environmental movement in the United States along Pennsylvania photograph and Wildlife Service. As with the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA). taken ca. 1945 by Shirley Briggs. (Provided courtesy of the Linda Lear Center for Special Collections and Archives, Connecticut College). 2 Chapter 1 Sustainable Design, Engineering, and Innovation  Application /1.2 The Basics of EPA Related Laws and Regulations The EPA has many tools to protect human health and public disclosure of intent to write or modify a regu- the environment, including partnerships, educational lation, and a public comment period where those programs, and grants. However, the most significant potentially affected by the regulation have an oppor- tool is writing regulations, which are mandatory tunity to offer input to the process. requirements that can be relevant to individuals, busi- Draft and final federal regulations are published in nesses, state or local governments, nonprofit organiza- the Code of Federal Regulations (CFR). The number 40 tions, or others. that is associated with environmental regulations (i.e., The regulatory process begins with Congress pass- 40CFR) indicates the section of the CFR related to the ing a law and then authorizing the EPA to help put environment. that law into effect by creating and enforcing regula- tions. Of course, there are many checks and balances along the path from law to regulation, including SOURCE: http://www.epa.gov/lawsregs/basics.html administrator, who is appointed by the president and approved by Congress, leads the agency. The EPA has its headquarters in Washington, D.C., regional offices for each of the agency’s 10 regions (Figure 1.1) and 27 research laboratories. EPA is organized into a number of central program offices as well as regional offices and laboratories, each with its own NH WA VT ME 10 MT ND MA OR MN 1 ID SD WI NY 2 Rl MI WY 5 CT IA PA NJ NV 8 NE OH 3 IN DE UT 7 IL WV CA CO VA MD KS MO KY DC NC 9 TN 4 AZ OK SC NM AR 6 AL GA MS 9 LA TX HI FL Guam Trust Territories 2 VI American Samoa 10 PR Northern Mariana AK islands Figure / 1.1 The EPA’s Ten Regions Each region has its own regional administrator and other critical functions for carrying out the mission of protecting human health and the environment. EPA headquarters are located in Washington, D.C. (Adapted from EPA). 1.1 Background: Evolution from Environmental Protection to Sustainability 3  regulatory, research, and/or enforcement mandate. The agency con- ducts environmental assessment, research, and education. It has the responsibility of maintaining and enforcing national standards under a variety of environmental laws, in consultation with state, tribal, and local governments. It delegates some permitting, monitoring, and enforcement responsibility to U.S. states and Native American tribes. EPA enforcement powers include fines, sanctions, and other measures. The agency also works with industries and all levels of government in a wide variety of voluntary pollution prevention programs and energy conservation efforts. The mission of EPA is to protect human health and the environment. EPA’s purpose is to ensure that:
all Americans are protected from significant risks to human health and the environment where they live, learn, and work;
national efforts to reduce environmental risk are based on the best available scientific information;
federal laws protecting human health and the environment are enforced fairly and effectively;
environmental protection is an integral consideration in U.S. policies concerning natural resources, human health, economic growth, energy, transportation, agriculture, industry, and international trade, and these factors are similarly considered in establishing environmental policy;
all parts of society—communities, individuals, businesses, and state, local, and tribal governments—have access to accurate information sufficient to effectively participate in managing human health and environmental risks;
environmental protection contributes to making our communities and ecosystems diverse, sustainable, and economically productive;
the United States plays a leadership role in working with other nations to protect the global environment. The Regulatory Process EPA works closely with the states to implement federal environ- http://www.epa.gov/lawsregs/ mental programs. States authorized to manage federal programs must regulations/index.html have enforcement authorities that are at least as stringent as federal law. EPA works with officials in state environmental, health, and Access the Code of Federal agricultural agencies on strategic planning, priority-setting, and mea- Regulations surement of results. http://www.gpoaccess.gov/cfr/ While we have made tremendous strides in addressing the most egregious environmental insults and maintained a growing economy, the environmental challenges of today are more complex and subtle than encountered at the start of the modern environmental movement. For example, there are clear connections between emissions to air, land, and water even if the regulations were not written and the EPA was not organized with these considerations. Furthermore, air and water emissions come from many distributed sources (referred to as nonpoint source emissions), so it is much more difficult to identify a specific source that can be regulated and 4 Chapter 1 Sustainable Design, Engineering, and Innovation monitored. We also have a much higher level of understanding of the Global Environmental Outlook linkages among society, the economy, and the environment. These http://www.unep.org/GEO are recognized as the three pillars of sustainability and require that we consider them simultaneously, looking for synergies to achieve Class Discussion mutual benefits. That is, we must create and maintain a prosperous Is it better to live within a society with high quality of life without the negative impacts that determined limit by have historically harmed our environment and communities in the accepting some restrictions name of development. And all of this must be performed while on consumption-fueled growth? maintaining a sufficient stock of natural resources for current and future generations to maintain an increasing population with an improving quality of life. Application /1.3 Tragedy of the Commons The Tragedy of the Commons describes the relation- each individual or organization fails to recognize that ship where individuals or organizations consume every individual and organization is acting in the shared resources (e.g., air, freshwater; fish from the same way. It is this logic that has led to the current ocean) and then return their wastes back into the situation in ocean fisheries, the Amazon rain forest, shared resource (e.g., air, land). In this way, the indi- and global climate change. In each case, the consump- vidual or organization receives all of the benefit of the tive behavior of a few has led to a significant impact on shared resource but distributes the cost across anyone the many and the destruction of the integrity of the who also uses that resource. The tragedy arises when shared resource. Application /1.4 The Limits to Growth and Carrying Capacity The Limits to Growth, published in 1972, warned of (e.g., biomass) imposed through environmental the limitations of the world’s resources and pointed resistance. In nature, this resistance is related to out there might not be enough resources remaining the availability of renewable resources, such as for the developing world to industrialize. The food, and nonrenewable resources, such as space, authors, using mathematical models, argued that as they affect biomass through reproduction, growth, “the basic behavior mode of the world system is and survival. One solution is to use technological exponential growth of population and capital, fol- advances to increase the amount of prosperity per lowed by collapse” in a phenomenon known as unit of resources. Of course, there is a risk that “carrying capacity.” (see Figure 1.2) maintaining growth in a limited system by advances Carrying capacity (discussed more in Chapter 5) in technology can lead to overuse of finite is a way to think of resource limitations. It refers resources—efficiency alone is not an effective indi- to the upper limit to population or community size cator of sustainability. Figure 1.3 provides a timeline of the progression from the start of the The Story of Stuff domestic environmental movement in the 1960s through the progres- http://www.storyofstuff.com sion to recent major international sustainability activities. Based on the events on the timeline, there is a clear progression from initial regula- tory responses to egregious environmental assaults to a more proactive, systematic international dialogue about a broad sustainability agenda 1.1 Background: Evolution from Environmental Protection to Sustainability 5  Worldwide Total of Whales Sperm Whales Killed (thousands) Killed (thousands) 65 25 And now 55 Since 1945, 20 the sperm more and 45 whale is being more whales 15 hunted without have been 35 limit on 10 numbers—the killed to 25 produce... 1 ultimate folly. 15 0 5 1930 1935 1938 1940 1945 1950 1955 1960 1965 1970 1930 1935 1938 1940 1945 1950 1955 1960 1965 1970 Worldwide Whale Oil Production Sei Whales Killed (thousands) (millions of barrels) 20 3 15 As fin stocks Less and collapsed, they 2 less oil. 10 turned to sei whales. 5 1 0 0 1930 1935 1938 1940 1945 1950 1955 1960 1965 1970 1930 1935 1938 1940 1945 1950 1955 1960 1965 1970 Average Gross Tonnage of Catcher Fin Whales Killed (thousands) Boats (hundreds of tons) 30 7 25 6 20 Catcher They switched boats have 5 15 to killing become fin whales. 10 bigger... 4 5 3 0 2 1930 1935 1938 1940 1945 1950 1955 1960 1965 1970 1930 1935 1938 1940 1945 1950 1955 1960 1965 1970 Average Horsepower of Catcher Blue Whales Killed (thousands) Boats (thousands) 35 30 2.5 First, the industry 25 killed off the And more 20 biggest whales— 2.0 powerful 15 the blues.... Then the 1940s, 1.5 10 as stocks 5 gave out... 1.0 0 1930 1935 1938 1940 1945 1950 1955 1960 1965 1970 1930 1935 1938 1940 1945 1950 1955 1960 1965 1970 Average Production per Catcher Boat per Day’s Work (barrels of whale oil) 150 130 But their 110 efficiency has 90 plummeted. 70 50 30 1930 1935 1938 1940 1945 1950 1955 1960 1965 1970 Figure / 1.2 Limits to Growth and Technology of the Whaling Industry Maintaining growth in a limited system by advances in technology will eventually result in extinction for both whales and the whaling industry. As wild pods of whales are destroyed, finding the survivors has become more difficult and has required more effort. As larger whales are killed off, smaller species are exploited to keep the industry alive. Without species limits, large whales are always taken wherever and whenever encountered. Thus, small whales subsidize the extermination of large ones. (Based on Payne, R. 1968. “Among Wild Whales.” New York Zoological Society Newsletter (November)). 6 Chapter 1 Sustainable Design, Engineering, and Innovation  GOVERNANCE GOVERNANCE GOVERNANCE GOVERNANCE TOXICS GOVERNANCE CLIMATE GOVERNANCE The Wilderness The Clean Air Act, Participants from 114 The first amendments to the An estimated 10,000 Sweeping revisions The Kyoto Protocol strengthens The U.S. Supreme Court Act is passed, the law that defines countries come to Stockholm, Clean Air Act are passed, people are killed and to the Clean Air Act the 1992 Climate Change rules that EPA has the creating a legal EPA's responsibilities Sweden, for the creating provisions to many more injured when are passed and Convention by mandating authority under the Clean definition of for protecting and UN Conference on the address the prevention of Union Carbide's pesticide designed to curb that industrial countries Air Act to regulate emissions wilderness and improving the nation's Human Environment. significant deterioration of plant in Bhopal, India, three major threats cut their carbon dioxide of carbon dioxide and other protecting millions air quality and the Only one is an air quality in areas leaks 40 tons of methyl to the nation's emissions by 6 to 8 percent greenhouse gases. of acres of stratospheric ozone layer, environment minister, as attaining the NAAQS. isocyanate gas into the environment and to from 1990 levels by 2008–2012. federal lands. is passed. most countries do not yet air and sends a cloud the health of millions But the protocol's controversial have environmental agencies. of poison into the of Americans: emissions-trading scheme, The delegates adopt 109 surrounding city of acid rain, urban as well as debates over the recommendations for 1 million. air pollution, role of developing countries, government action and and toxic air cloud its future. push for the creation of the emissions. UN Environment Programme. TOXICS GOVERNANCE CONSUMPTION GOVERNANCE GOVERNANCE GOVERNANCE Marine biologist Rachel Experts from around the The Club of Rome, The Safe Drinking Water The UN Environment The World Commission on GOVERNANCE GOVERNANCE Carson publishes world meet for the first a group of economists, Act is passed by Congress Programme organizes the Environment and Development Most countries and 117 104 world leaders and Silent Spring, time at the UN Biosphere scientists, and business to protect public health Stockholm +10 conference publishes Our Common Future heads of state participate thousands of delegates meeting calling attention Conference in Paris, leaders from 25 countries, by regulating the nation's in Nairobi. The attendees (The Brundtland Report), in the groundbreaking at the World Summit on Sustainable to the threat of France, to discuss global publishes The Limits public drinking water supply. agree to a declaration which concludes that UN Conference on Development in Johannesburg, toxic chemicals to environmental problems, to Growth, which predicts expressing “serious concern preserving the environment, Environment and Development South Africa, agree on a limited people and including pollution, that the Earth's limits about the present state addressing global inequities, (Earth Summit), in plan to reduce poverty and the environment. resource loss, and will be reached in 100 of the environment” and and fighting poverty Rio de Janeiro, Brazil. protect the environment. wetlands destruction. years at current rates of establish an independent could fuel—not hinder— Participants adopt Agenda 21, population growth, commission to craft a economic growth by a voluminous blueprint for resource depletion, “global agenda for change,” promoting sustainable sustainable development and pollution generation. paving the way for the development. that calls for improving the release of Our Common quality of life on Earth. Future in 1987. 1962 1963 1964 1968 1969 1970 1972 1973 1974 1976 1977 1980 1982 1983 1984 1987 1990 1992 1995 1997 2000 2002 2005 2007 2012 1.1 Background: Evolution from Environmental Protection to Sustainability GOVERNANCE TOXICS GOVERNANCE GOVERNANCE GOVERNANCE CLIMATE GOVERNANCE CLIMATE CLIMATE Congress passes Cuyahoga River The U.S. The Endangered The Resource Conservation The U.S. Environmental The Pollution Prevention The Intergovernmental The Kyoto Protocol an early version of near Cleveland, Environmental Species Act is and Recovery Act (RCRA) Protection Agency and the Act focuses industry, Panel on Climate Change (from 1997) is entered the Clean Air Act, Ohio, catches on fire. Protection Agency passed to protect is enacted by Congress U.S. National Academy government, and public (IPCC), a group of hundreds into force after Russia authorizing the (EPA) is formed. critically imperiled with primary goals of of Sciences release reports attention on reducing of prominent climate ratified the agreement government to species from protecting human health concluding that the build-up the amount of pollution scientists assembled by in 2004, meeting the control air extinction. and the environment of carbon dioxide and other through cost-effective the UN in 1988, releases necessary participation pollution levels from the potential “greenhouse gases” changes in production, a report concluding that threshold. hazards of waste disposal, in the Earth's atmosphere operation, and raw “the balance of evidence conserving energy and will likely lead to materials use. suggests that there is natural resources, global warming. Source reduction is a discernible human reducing the amount of fundamentally different from influence on global climate.” waste generated, and more desirable than and ensuring that waste management or wastes are managed in pollution control. an environmentally sound manner. POPULATION GOVERNANCE GOVERNANCE GOVERNANCE OZONE LAYER CLIMATE GOVERNANCE SUSTAINABILITY SCIENCE Paul Ehrlich publishes Millions of people gather The Clean Water Act The Comprehensive The Montreal Protocol on The Convention on Climate 189 nations make a promise EPA reorients its research The Population Bomb, in the United States for is passed, setting up Environmental Response, Substances that Deplete Change sets nonbinding to free people from extreme objectives around describing the the first Earth Day to protest mechanisms to reduce Compensation, the Ozone Layer is carbon dioxide reduction poverty and multiple deprivations. “The Path Forward” ecological threats environmental abuses, discharges of pollutants and Liability Act (CERCLA), adopted to support the goals for industrial countries This pledge turned into the eight after commissioning of a rapidly growing sparking the creation of into waterways and to commonly phasing out of (to 1990 levels by 2000). Millennium Development Goals, the National Academies human population. landmark environmental underwrite municipal known as Superfund, production of a number The final treaty calls for which range from halving to develop laws, including the wastewater treatment is passed, creating a tax on of ozone-depleting avoiding human alteration extreme poverty to providing “The Green Book.” Endangered Species Act plants. the chemical and petroleum chemicals. of the climate, but falls far access to safe drinking water and the Safe Drinking industries and providing short of expectations, and sanitation. Water Act. broad federal authority largely due to lack of support to respond directly to from the United States. releases or threatened releases of hazardous substances that may endanger public health or the environment. Figure / 1.3 Timeline of critical events leading from a mission of environmental protection to a goal of sustainability. (Events adopted from www.worldwatch.org). 7  Application /1.5 Defining Sustainability If you Google the words sustainability, sustainable devel- depleted or permanently damaged and (2) of or relating opment, and sustainable engineering, you will get hun- to a lifestyle involving the use of sustainable methods. dreds of definitions. Try it! The abundance of varying Sustainable development is defined by the Brundt- definitions has made it difficult to realize consensus on land Commission as “development which meets the what sustainability is. However, nearly all of the defi- needs of the present without compromising the ability nitions of sustainability refer to integrating the three of the future to meet its needs.” elements of the triple bottom line (environment, econ- Sustainable engineering is defined as the design of omy, society). Most definitions also extend sustainabil- human and industrial systems to ensure that human- ity criteria to include the aim of meeting the needs of kind’s use of natural resources and cycles do not lead to current and future generations. diminished quality of life due either to losses in future Sustainability is defined by Merriam-Webster as economic opportunities or to adverse impacts on social follows: (1) of, relating to, or being a method of harvest- conditions, human health, and the environment (Mihelcic ing or using a resource so that the resource is not et al., 2003). (Application 1.5). In 1986, the UN World Commission on Environment and Development released Our Common Future. This book is also referred to as the Brundtland Commission report, because Ms. Gro Brundtland, the former prime minister of Norway, chaired the com- mission. The Brundtland Commission report defined sustainable development as “development which meets the needs of the present without compromising the ability of the future to meet its needs.” This report helped to prompt the 1992 UN Conference on Environ- ment and Development, known as the Earth Summit, held in Rio de Janeiro, Brazil. The conference, the first global conference to specifically address the environment, led to the nonbinding agenda for the 21st Class Discussion century, Agenda 21, which set forth goals and recommendations related In which of the MDGs do to environmental, economic, and social issues. In addition, the UN engineers have a role to Commission on Sustainable Development was created to oversee the play? Are these traditional implementation of Agenda 21. or emerging roles for engineers to At the 2002 World Summit on Sustainable Development in Johan- play in society and practice? nesburg, South Africa, world leaders reaffirmed the principles of sustainable development adopted at the Earth Summit 10 years earlier. Millennium Development Goals They also adopted the Millennium Development Goals (MDGs), You can go to www.un.org/ listed in Table 1.1. The eight MDGs represent an ambitious agenda millenniumgoals/ Go to this URL to for a better world that can guide engineering innovation and practice. learn more about progress toward This is a good example of the link between policy and engineering: meeting the MDGs. policy can drive engineering innovation, and new engineering advancements can encourage the development of new policies with advanced standards that redefine “best available technologies.” 1.2 The Path Forward: Operationalizing Sustainability Given the many definitions of sustainability (refer back to Applica- tion 1.5) and the complexity of a systems perspective to include the linkages and feedback between the environment, economy, and soci- ety, there are ongoing efforts to move from discussions to operationally 8 Chapter 1 Sustainable Design, Engineering, and Innovation Table / 1.1 Millennium Development Goals (MDGs) MDGs are an ambitious agenda embraced by the world community for reducing poverty and improving lives of the global community. Learn more at www.un.org/millenniumgoals/. Millennium Development Goal Background Example Target(s) (of 21 total targets) 1. Eradicate extreme More than a billion people still live (1a) Halve the proportion of people living on less poverty and hunger. on less than $1 a day. than $1 a day and those who suffer from hunger. 2. Achieve universal As many as 113 million children do (2a) Ensure that all boys and girls complete primary education. not attend school. primary school. 3. Promote gender equality Two-thirds of illiterates are (3a) Eliminate gender disparities in primary and and empower women. women, and the rate of secondary education, preferably by 2005, and at employment among women is two- all levels by 2015. thirds that of men. 4. Reduce child mortality. Every year, nearly 11 million young (4a) Reduce by two-thirds the mortality rate children die before their fifth among children under 5 years. birthday, mainly from preventable illnesses. 5. Improve maternal health. In the developing world, the risk of (5a) Reduce by three-quarters the ratio of women dying in childbirth is one in 48. dying in childbirth. 6. Combat HIV/AIDS, 40 million people are living with (6a and 6c) Halt and begin to reverse the spread malaria, and other HIV, including 5 million newly of HIV/AIDS and the incidence of malaria and diseases. infected in 2001. other major diseases. 7. Ensure environmental 768 million people lack access to (7a) Integrate the principles of sustainable sustainability. safe drinking water and 2.5 billion development into country policies and programs people lack improved sanitation. and reverse the loss of environmental resources. (7b) Reduce by half the proportion of people without access to safe drinking water. (7c) Achieve significant improvement in the lives of at least 100 million slum dwellers. 8. Develop a global (8a) Develop further an open, rule-based, partnership for predictable, nondiscriminatory trading and development. financial system. (8b) Address the special needs of the least- developed countries. (8c) Address the special needs of landlocked countries and small island developing states. (8d) Deal comprehensively with the debt problems of developing countries through national and international measures to make debt sustainable in the long term. (8e) In cooperation with pharmaceutical companies, provide access to affordable, essential drugs in developing countries. (8f) In cooperation with the private sector, make available the benefits of new technologies, especially information and communications. SOURCE: www.un.org/millenniumgoals/. 1.2 The Path Forward: Operationalizing Sustainability 9  Figure / 1.4 Daily Activity in Much of the World of Collecting Water. (Photo courtesy of James R. Mihelcic). applying a sustainability framework to organizational and engineering activities. There are often considered to be two broad classes of efforts to operationalize sustainability: top-down and bottom-up. That is, one strategy involves high-level decision-makers initiating activities and establishing organizational structures and incentives to push sustain- ability into the organization from the top. In the other strategy, people throughout the organization are motivated to pursue their functions in a more sustainable manner and drive sustainability into the organiza- tion through grassroots initiatives and self-initiated activities. There are examples of successful changes from governmental and nongovernmental organizations as well as major corporations that have been realized from both of these approaches, but the most successful examples are when all levels of the organization are working toward sustainability outcomes. A successful example of this evolution to operationalize sustainability can be seen in the Path Forward at the Office of Research and Development at the EPA (described in Appli- cation 1.6). Once there is an intention to pursue sustainability, there is a clear need to identify an approach to problem solving that is evolved from previous approaches which had not systematically incorporated triple bottom-line considerations. There are two critical frameworks that can be utilized to support the expanded view necessary to move toward sustainability goals: life cycle thinking and systems thinking. While these two frameworks are related, there are clear differences where life cycle thinking is focused on material and energy flows and the subse- quent impacts, while systems thinking can also capture the relationship of political, cultural, social, and economic considerations, and potential feedbacks between these considerations and material and energy flows. 10 Chapter 1 Sustainable Design, Engineering, and Innovation  Application /1.6 The Path Forward at EPA’s Office of Research and Development (Anastas, 2012) Since 2010, significant changes have been made to key scientific and analytical tools, indicators, metrics, EPA’s research enterprise. All of EPA’s actions and and benchmarks for sustainability that can be used decisions are based on science and research. The EPA to track progress toward sustainability goals. EPA has recently embarked on a major effort to realign its scientists have begun to develop the scientific and research portfolio in order to more effectively address analytical tools that will be needed in order to respond pressing environmental challenges and better serve the to and implement sustainability at EPA, including life Agency’s decision-making functions into the future cycle assessment, ecosystem services valuation, full using sustainability as an organizing principle. cost/full benefit accounting, green chemistry, green In 2010, EPA commissioned a landmark study from infrastructure, and more. This effort to develop the the National Academies to provide recommendations tools of sustainability mirrors past EPA efforts to on how to systematically operationalize the concept of develop the tools for assessing, evaluating, and man- sustainability into the Agency’s entire decision mak- aging risk. ing. The final report entitled “Sustainability and the U.S. EPA” (also known as the “Green Book”) outlined Access the “Green Book” (Sustainability at the U.S. EPA) at several recommendations, including identification of http://www.nap.edu/catalog.php?record_ id¼13152#toc 1.2.1 LIFE CYCLE THINKING Life cycle thinking supports recognizing and understanding how both consuming products and engaging in activities impact the environment from a holistic perspective. That is, life cycle considerations take into account the environmental performance of a product, process, or system from acquisition of raw materials to refining those materials, manufacturing, use, and end-of-life management. Figure 1.5a depicts the common life cycle stages for a consumer product. In the case of engineering infrastructure, Figure 1.5b depicts the life cycle stages of: (1) site development, (2) materials and product delivery, (3) infra- structure manufacture, (4) infrastructure use, and (5) end-of-life issues associated with infrastructure refurbishment, recycling, and disposal. LCA 101 In some cases, the transportation impacts of moving between these life http://www.epa.gov/nrmrl/std/lca/lca. cycle stages are also considered. html There is a need to consider the entire life cycle, because different environmental impacts can occur during different stages. For example, some materials may have an adverse environmental consequence when extracted or processed, but may be relatively benign in use and easy to recycle. Aluminum is such a material. On one hand, smelting of alumi- num ore is very energy intensive. This is one reason aluminum is a favored recycled metal. However, an automobile will create the bulk of its environmental impact during the use life stage, not only because of combustion of fossil fuels, but also because of runoff from roads and the use of many fluids during operation. And for buildings, though a vast amount of water, aggregate, chemicals, and energy goes into the pro- duction of construction materials, transport of these items to the job site, and construction of a building, the vast amount of water and energy occurs after occupancy, during the operation life stage of the building. 1.2 The Path Forward: Operationalizing Sustainability 11  Material Material Product extraction processing Manufacturing use End of life Recycle Remanufacturing Reuse (a) Site Infrastructure Materials and Infrastructure development manufacture product delivery use End of life Recycle Remanufacturing Reuse (b) Figure / 1.5 Common Life Cycle Stages The most common life cycle stages for (a) a manufactured product and (b) engineered infrastructure. Figures 1.5a and 1.5b also show, as feedback loops, the potential for recycling, remanufacturing, and reuse. While there are often benefits associated with these various end-of-life handling strategies, they can also carry environmental impacts and should be included when mak- ing design or improvement designs and in life cycle considerations. Further, and potentially most importantly, life cycle thinking will minimize the possibility of shifting impacts from one life cycle stage to another by considering the entire system. For example, efforts to reduce The Life Cycle Initiative the energy demands of lighting led to the installation of millions of http://lcinitiative.unep.fr/ compact fluorescent light bulbs (CFLs) (Application 1.7). However, 12 Chapter 1 Sustainable Design, Engineering, and Innovation  Application /1.7 Energy Conservation, Reduced Carbon Emissions, and New Lighting Technology Given the growing concern about the impact of increas- electricity generation is taken for lighting, there is the ing carbon emissions on temperature and climate, there potential for tremendous savings associated with new are many strategies proposed to improve energy effi- alternative lighting technologies. ciency, thereby reducing the associated carbon emis- However, it is important to note that current CFLs sions. Electricity production creates about 33 percent contain approximately 4.0 mg of mercury per bulb, of total carbon emissions, while 27 percent of the total r