Fire Protection and Arson Investigation PDF

SCHOOL OF CRIMINAL JUSTICE AND PUBLC SAFETY Fire Protection and Arson CDIARS3 Investigation By: Immanuel Jesus A. Fernandez  TABLE OF CONTENTS Cover Page...

SCHOOL OF CRIMINAL JUSTICE AND PUBLC SAFETY Fire Protection and Arson CDIARS3 Investigation By: Immanuel Jesus A. Fernandez  TABLE OF CONTENTS Cover Page 1 Table of Contents 2 Introduction to Module 3 MODULE 1 NATURE AND CONCEPTS OF FIRE Objectives 4 Pre-test Questions 4 Lesson Contexts 5 Module 1 Activity 17 Module 1 Post-test Questions 18 2 FIRE PROTECTION, PREVENTION AND CONTROL Objectives 20 Pre-test Questions 21 Lesson Contexts 21 Module 2 Activity 39 Module 2 Post-test Questions 40 3 ARSON INVESTIGATION Objectives 43 Pre-test Questions 44 Lesson Contexts 45 Module 3 Activity 58 Module 3 Post-test Questions 59 Evaluation of the Course 65 References 66 Instructional Module of Fire Protection and Arson Investigation by Dr. Filibert Patrick F. Tad-awan Page | 2  THE MODULE Course Code : CDIARS3 Course Title : Fire Protection and Arson Investigation Course Description : The entire course covers the concepts and nature of fire, chemistry of fire, fire triangle, fire tetrahedron elements of fire, classes of fire, stages of fire, causes and behavior of fire and products of combustions. Firefighting apparatus and equipment, Firefighting equipment, First aid equipment, Personal protective equipment, Fire hoses and nozzles. Fire extinguishment theory, types of Portable fire extinguisher and ladders and the stages of Firefighting operations and principles, legal concept, procedures and guidelines in Arson Investigation. Requirement of the Course: 1. Enrolled students shall register on the messenger group chat and join the Google classroom for the class and shall give his/her contact number to the Instructor concerned. 2. Enrolled students are all expected to read and comprehend all the parts of the modules. More specifically the lesson context shall be read more than twice by the students for understanding. 3. Students must answer all the pre-test, activity per modules and the post-test question. 4. Each activity shall be submitted on the manner and date stated by the Instructor thru the Group chat and cascaded time frame of the activities. In case of no availability of the internet connections, all activities shall be compiled by the students and shall be submitted before the end of the term. 5. Innovative/OBE output shall one of the major requirements for the course where the students shall be able to make a sample case folder or investigative reports of a case presented. Instructional Module of Fire Protection and Arson Investigation by Dr. Filibert Patrick F. Tad-awan Page | 3  MODULE 1 NATURE AND CONCEPTS OF FIRE Module 1 covers the concepts and nature of fire, chemistry of fire, fire triangle, fire tetrahedron elements of fire, classes of fire, stages of fire, causes and behavior of fire and products of combustions Objectives: In this chapter, the students shall be able to: 1. know the basic concept of fire. 2. explain the fire chemistry fire, fir triangle and fire tetrahedron. 3. Identified and familiarized the different classes of fire, stages of fire, causes and behavior of fire and products of combustions MODULE 1 PRE-TEST : CRITICAL THINKING QUESTIONS Name: ______________________________ Date: ______________ Subject/Schedule: _____________________ Score: _____________ Instruction: Answer the following questions briefly. Write your answer/s on the space provided after each question. 1. What is Fire? _____________________________________________________________________________ _____________________________________________________________________________ _____________________________________________________________________________ _____________________________________________________________________________ _____________________________________________________________________________ _____________________________________________________________________________ 2. What is heat? _____________________________________________________________________________ _____________________________________________________________________________ _____________________________________________________________________________ _____________________________________________________________________________ _____________________________________________________________________________ _____________________________________________________________________________ 3. What is fire triangle? _____________________________________________________________________________ _____________________________________________________________________________ _____________________________________________________________________________ _____________________________________________________________________________ _____________________________________________________________________________ _____________________________________________________________________________ Instructional Module of Fire Protection and Arson Investigation by Dr. Filibert Patrick F. Tad-awan Page | 4  MODULE 1 LESSON CONTEXT NATURE AND CONCEPTS OF FIRE PROTECTION BASIC CONCEPTS OF FIRE FIRE PROTECTION is the descriptive term referring to the various methods used to stop, extinguish, and control destructive fire for eventual prevention of loss of life and property. FIRE PREVENTION is the descriptive term of the various methods or safety measures utilized to prevent harmful or destructive fires from starting. Fire had been produced by two principal methods: FRICTION AND PERCUSSION. In the friction method, friction raises the temperature of a combustible material (kindling) to ignition temperature. The percussion method produces a spark to set a kindling fire. ▪ In Friction method, two pieces of wood surrounded by combustible material are rubbed together until the ignition temperature is reached. ▪ In the stick-and-groove method, a stick is rubbed in a groove in another piece of wood. ▪ In the fire-drill method, a stick is rotated rapidly in a pit in a stationary piece of wood. The stick is rotated by rubbing it between the palms of the hands or by moving back and forth a wooden bow whose string is wrapped around the stick. ▪ The most basic percussion method of producing fire is by striking together two pieces of flint, or by striking flint against pyrite. Later, steel was substituted for the pyrite. ▪ The flint-and-steel method prevailed throughout the civilized world until about 1827, when matches came into use. ▪ With matches, friction is used to heal the tip of the match to the point at which chemicals in the match head ignite. Important Personalities and their Inventions: 1. JOHN WALKER- He was the English Pharmacist who invented the first match in 1827. The tip of this match was coated a mixture of antimony sulfide and potassium chlorate that was held on the wooden matchstick by gum Arabic and Starch. 2. ANTOINE LAVOISIER- a French Chemist who proved in 1777 that burning is the result of the rapid union of oxygen with other substances. As substances burn, heat and light are produced. 3. THOMAS ALVA EDISON- an American inventor who was able to send an elective current through a carbon filament (wire) until the filament became so hot that it gave off light. *Oxidation is the chemical reaction in which oxygen chemically combines with the organic elements of a combustible substance. Slow oxidation sometimes becomes rapid. *Combustion –rapid oxidation of material THE CHEMISTRY OF FIRE What is FIRE?  Fire is the heat and light that comes from burning substances produced by the combustion of substances.  It is the manifestation of rapid chemical reaction occurring between a combustible matter and an oxidizer. Such rapid chemical reaction releases energy in the form of heat and light. When a substance burns, heat and light are produced. Burning is also called combustion. THE 3 ELEMENTS OF FIRE The theory of fire states that: to produce fire, 3 things/ conditions must exist: (Known as the triangle of fire) Instructional Module of Fire Protection and Arson Investigation by Dr. Filibert Patrick F. Tad-awan Page | 5  1. Heat- ignition temperature 2. Fuel- combustible material (organic material, hydrocarbons) 3. Oxidizing agent- the common oxidizing agent is oxygen Air is composed of:  Oxygen  Nitrogen  Inert gases The Process or chemistry of Fire:  To burn a fuel, its temperature must be raised (increased) until IGNITION POINT is reached. This is the lowest degree at which the combustible material is ignited. Thus, before a combustible matter starts to burn or before it can be ignited, it has to be exposed to a certain degree of temperature.  If a substance automatically burns without any human or mechanical intervention, the temperature of the substance has been spontaneously increased until it reaches the AUTO-IGNITION POINT. Auto-ignition point or SELF-IGNITIONPOINT is the lowest temperature at which a substance can be heated to release vapors that will ignite without the application of a flame or spark. It refers to the temperature at which spontaneous combustion take place. Auto-ignition point is usually much higher (in temperature) than the fire point.  When the temperature of a substance is very high, it releases highly combustible vapors known as FREE RADICALS. The lowest temperature at which a substance gives off vapor that burns momentarily (when a flame or spark is applied) is called the FLASH POINT. FREE RADICALS- combustible vapors such as: 1. Hydrogen gas 2. Carbon monoxide 3. Carbon dioxide 4. Nitrogen  If a fuel’s temperature has reached its flash point, then it can be instantly ignited thus producing a momentary fire. If its temperature still increases, such that it continuously releases combustible vapors, the condition results to sustained burning (combustion). Hence, the fuel is deemed to have reached its fire point. FIRE POINT is the temperature at which the fuel continues to burn after it has been ignited – that even if the source of ignition has been removed, the fuel continues to burn. Flash point of a substance is usually a few degrees lower than the fire point.  FLAMMABLE means easily ignited and capable of burning with great rapidity. A flammable substance is therefore a highly combustible substance. The terms FLAMMABLE and INFLAMMABLE are synonymous; meaning that they have the same meaning thus they can be interchangeably used. Combustion may be in the form of: 1. GLOWING COMBUSTION (Condense-phased combustion) -manifested by embers 2. GAS PHASED COMBUSTION – Manifested by flames Two (2) basic modes of fire: 1. Flaming Mode- represented by the fire TETRAHEDRON, a 4-sided figure with the sides representing fuel, temperature, oxygen, and the uninhibited chemical chain reaction. 2. Surface or Smoldering Mode- it is represented by the fire triangle with the 3 sides representing fuel, temperature, and oxygen. What is Pyrolysis?  It refers to the chemical process whereby fire consumes the most solid part of the fuel. It is the thermal decomposition of combustible matter. It is the chemical decomposition of a solid fuel through the action of heat. Instructional Module of Fire Protection and Arson Investigation by Dr. Filibert Patrick F. Tad-awan Page | 6 THE FIRE TRIANGLE  the fire triangle is a model for conveying the components of a fire. The fire triangle’s three sides illustrate the three elements of fire, which are heat, fuel and oxidization. If just one of these components is removed, the fire triangle will collapse and the fire will be extinguished. THE FIRE TETRAHEDRON  The fire tetrahedron is a slightly more complex model to describe the components needed to ignite and sustain a fire. It is a four-sided geometric representation of the four factors necessary for fire:  The fire tetrahedron includes the three components covered in the fire triangle, with the addition of a chemical chain reaction.  This model is simply adding another dimension onto the traditional fire triangle model by treating the chemical reaction as its own separate component. Some fire extinguishers work by applying extinguishing agents to the fire to inhibit the chemical reaction on a molecular level. THE ELEMENTS OF FIRE A. FUELS ( Combustible Materials) General Categories of Fuels: The 3 groups of combustible materials basing on the three states of matter are: 1. Solid combustible materials- include organic or inorganic, natural or synthetic, and metallic solid materials. 2. Liquid combustible materials- includes all flammable liquid fuels and chemicals 3. Gaseous substances- includes those toxic/ hazardous gases that are capable of ignition Classification of Combustible Materials: 1. Class A Fuels- ordinary combustible materials that are usually made of organic substances such as wood and wood-based products; includes some of those synthetic and/or inorganic materials like rubber, leather and plastics. 2. Class B Fuels- materials which are in the form of flammable liquids such as alcohol, acidic solutions, oil, and other chemicals such those liquid petroleum products Instructional Module of Fire Protection and Arson Investigation by Dr. Filibert Patrick F. Tad-awan Page | 7  3. Class C Fuels- normally fire-resistant materials; these are materials used in electrical wirings and other electrical appliances. 4. Class D Fuels- combustible metallic substances such as magnesium. Titanium, zirconium, sodium and potassium THE THREE (3) PHYSICAL STATES OF MATTER IN WHICH FUELS ARE COMMONLY FOUND. A. Solid fuels 1. Have a definite shape and size a. Surface to mass ratio b. The more surface areas exposed – the less energy is required for ignition 2. Pyrolysis: The chemical decomposition of a substance through the action of heat. 3. The position of the fuel affects the way it burns  A solid fuel in a vertical position will allow fire spread more rapidly than the same fuel in a horizontal position B. Liquid Fuels 1. Fuel gases are generated by a process called vaporization a. Vaporization: The transformation of a liquid to its vapor or gaseous state 1. Energy input usually in the form of heat 2. Requires less energy than said fuels b. With liquids, the surface to volume ratio is important General Characteristics of liquids: a) Matters with definite volume but no definite shape. b) They assume the shape of their vessel because there is free movement of molecules although these molecules do not have the tendency to separate from one another. c) They are slightly compressible. They are not capable of indefinite expansion, unlike gas. Two (2) general groups of Liquid Fuels: 1. FLAMMABLE LIQUIDS- liquids have a flash point below 37.8o C (100 o F) 2. COMBUSTIBLE LIQUIDS- liquids have a flash point at or above 37.8o C (100 o F)  Technically speaking, flammable and combustible liquids do not cause fire. It is the vapors they produce which burn or explode when exposed to air under the influence of heat. Gasoline is the most widely used flammable liquid. LATENT HEAT is the quantity of heat absorbed by a substance from a solid to a liquid, and from a liquid to a gas. Conversely, heat is released during conversion of gas to liquid or liquid to gas. Techniques of preventing fire and explosion caused by liquid fuels: 1. Exclusion of ignition source. 2. Exclusion of air supply. 3. Shutting of fuel supply if possible. 4. Keeping liquids in closed container. 5. Proper ventilation to prevent the accumulation of vapor within a flammable range. 6. Using an atmosphere of inert gas instead of air. 7. Cooling the liquid to stop evaporation 8. Combination of the above. C. Gaseous fuels: 1. Can be the most dangerous of all fuel types because they are already in the natural state required for ignition 2. Must be mixed with air in the proper proportion to burn; i.e. flammable range 3. is a state of matter which has no definite volume and has no definite shape, unless it is contained in a container. It is composed of very tiny particles called molecules at constant random motion. Instructional Module of Fire Protection and Arson Investigation by Dr. Filibert Patrick F. Tad-awan Page | 8 CLASSIFICATION OF GASES: A. Based on source: 1. Natural Gas  The gas used to heat buildings, cook food, and provide energy for industries. It consists chiefly of methane, a colorless and odorless gas. Natural gas is usually mixed with compounds of the foul- smelling element sulfur so gas leaks can be defected.  Butane and propane, which make up a small proportion of natural gas, become liquids when placed under larger amounts of pressure. When pressure is released, they change back into gas. Such fuels, often called liquefied petroleum gas (LPG) or liquefied natural gas (LNG), are easily stored and shipped as liquid. 2. Manufactured Gas  This gas like synthetic liquid fuels is used chiefly where certain fuels are abundant and others are scarce. Coal, petroleum, and biomass can all be converted to gas through heating and by various chemical procedures. Gas can also be produced by treating such biomass as animal manure with bacteria called anaerobes. The bacteria expel methane as they digest the waste. B. Based on or according to Physical Properties: 1. Compressed gases- are those in normal atmospheric temperature pressure inside its container. Its pressure is dependent on how much gas is inside the container 2. Liquefied gases- are those in normal atmospheric pressure partly in liquid state and partly in solid state under pressure inside the container. Its pressure is dependent upon the temperature of the liquid. 3. Cryogenic gases- are liquefied gases that exist in its container at temperature far below normal atmospheric temperature, usually slightly above its boiling point with low moderate pressure. C. Based on usage: 1. Fuel gases- flammable gases used for burning with air to produce heat and utilized as power, light sources, etc. 2. Industrial gases- a large number of gases used in industrial processes such as those used in welding and cutting of metals 3. (Oxygen, Acetylene), refrigeration, chemical processing, water treatment, etc. Ex. Freon, ammonia, sulfur dioxide, hydrogen, nitrogen, chlorine, and fluorine 4. Medical gases- those used for treatment such as for anesthesia and respiratory therapy. Ex. Chloroform, nitrous oxide, oxygen CHEMICAL FUELS -Chemical fuels, which are produced in solid and liquid form, create great amounts of heat and power. They are used chiefly in rocket engines. Chemical rocket propellants consist of both fuel and an oxidizer. A common rocket fuel is the chemical hydrazine. The oxidizer is a substance, such as nitrogen tetroxide, that contains oxygen. When the propellant is ignited, the oxidizer provides the oxygen the fuel needs to burn. Chemical fuels are also used in some racing cars. NUCLEAR FUELS -Nuclear fuels provide energy through the fission or fusion of their atoms. Uranium is the most commonly used nuclear fuel, though plutonium also provides nuclear energy. When the atoms of these elements undergo fission, they release tremendous amounts of heat. Nuclear fuels are used mainly o generate electricity. They also power some submarines and ships. Nuclear energy can also be produced through the fusion of hydrogen atoms. *Nuclear Fission- split of the nucleus of the atoms *Nuclear Fusion- combination two light nuclei of atom B. HEAT (Temperature) HEAT defined: Instructional Module of Fire Protection and Arson Investigation by Dr. Filibert Patrick F. Tad-awan Page | 9  1. In physics, transfer of energy from one part of a substance to another or from one body to another by virtue of a difference in temperature. 2. Heat is energy in transit; 3. it always flow from a substance at a higher temperature to the substance at a lower temperature, raising the temperature of the latter and lowering that of the former substance, provided the volume of the bodies remains constant. 4. Heat does not flow from a lower to a higher temperature unless another form of energy transfer, work, is also present. TEMPERATURE defined: TEMPERATURE is the measure of the degree of thermal agitation of molecules; the hotness or coldness of something; measure of the thermal agitation of molecules of matter. Thermometer is the instrument used to measure. LATENT HEAT  A number of physical changes are associated with the change of temperature of a substance. Almost all substances expand in volume when heated and contract when cooled. The behavior of water between 0o and 4oC (32o and 39oF) constitutes an important exception to this rule. The phase of a substance refers to its occurrence as a solid, liquid, or gas, and phase changes in pure substances occur at definite temperatures and pressures. The process of changing from solid to gas is referred to as SUBLIMATION, from solid to liquid as melting, and from liquid to vapor as VAPORIZATION. If the pressure is constant, these processes occur at constant temperature.  The amount of heat required to produce a change of phase is called LATENT HEAT, and hence, latent heats of sublimation, melting, and vaporization exist. If water is boiled in an open vessel at a pressure of 1atm, the temperature does not rise above 100oC (212oF), no matter how much heat is added. The heat that is absorbed without changing the temperature of the water is the latent heat; it is not lost but is expended in changing the water to steam and is then stored as energy in the steam; it is again released when the steam is condensed into water (condensation). Similarly, if a mixture of water and ice in a glass is hated, its temperature will not change until all the ice is melted. The latent heat absorbed is used up in overcoming the forces holding the particles of ice together and is stored as energy in the water. SPECIFIC HEAT The heat capacity or the measure of the amount of heat required to raise the temperature of a unit mass of a substance one-degree is known as specific heat. If the heating process occurs while the substance is maintained at a constant volume or is subjected to a constant pressure the measure is referred to as a specific heat at constant volume or constant pressure. The latter is always larger than, or least equal to, the former for each substance. Because 1cal.causes a rise of 1 oC in 1g of water, the specific heat of water is 1cal/g/oC. In the case of water and other approximately incompressible substances, it is not necessary to distinguish between the constant volume and constant pressure specific heats, as they are approximately equal. Generally, the two specific heats of a substance depend on the temperature. TRANSFER OF HEAT The physical methods by which energy in the form of heat can be transferred between bodies are conduction and radiation. A third method, which also involves the motion of the matter, is called convection. the science dealing with the transfer of heat between bodies is called heat transfer. Three (3) methods of heat transfer A. Conduction 1. Heat conducted from one body to another either by direct contact or by an intervening heat conducting medium. 2. Depends on type of conductor: metal (good), drywall (poor). 3. Example: Metal plumbing components or electrical conduit. 4. Transfer of heat from hotter to cooler. B. Convection Instructional Module of Fire Protection and Arson Investigation by Dr. Filibert Patrick F. Tad-awan Page | 10  1. Transfer of heat energy by the movement of air or liquid. 2. Heated gases rise: mushrooming 3. Examples: Fire traveling through elevator shafts, stairways, balloon frame walls. 4. Direct flame contact is actually a form of convection heat transfer. C. Radiation 1. Transfer by heat waves. 2. Travels through space until it reaches an opaque object. 3. Light colors reflect radiant heat; dark colors absorb radiant heat. 4. Major source of fire spread to exposures. (Important to protect exposures from radiant heat.) Law of Heat Flow A. Heat flows from a hot substance to a cold substance. B. A colder substance will absorb heat until temperatures are equal. C. OXIDIZING AGENT: THE 3RD ELEMENT The common oxidizing agent is oxygen. Air is composed of: 1. 21% oxygen 2. 78%nitrogen 3. 1% inert gases In matters of combustion: 21% - normal oxygen 12%- insufficient to produce fire 14-15%- can support flash point 16- 21%- can support fire point THE RELATIONSHIP OF THE CONCENTRATION OF OXYGEN TO LIFE SAFETY AND COMBUSTIBILITY. A. Concentrations below twenty-one (21) percent have some effect on life safety. 1. At nine (9) percent, an individual becomes unconscious. 2. At six (6) percent, death will occur within a few minutes. B. In concentrations below eighteen (18) percent, fire begins to decrease. 1. Generally concentrations below fifteen (15) percent will not support combustion CAUSES AND BEHAVIOR OF FIRE A. NATURAL CAUSES 1. SPONTANEOUS HEATING – automatic chemical reaction that results to spontaneous combustion due to auto-ignition of organic materials; the gradual rising of heat in a confined space until ignition temperature is reached. 2. LIGHTNING – a form of static electricity; a natural electric current with great magnitude, producing tremendous amperage and voltage.  Lightning usually strikes objects that are better electrical conductors than air. Lightning can cause fire directly or indirectly. Indirectly when it strikes telephone and other transmission lines, causing an INDUCED LINE SURGE.  Lightning can cause a FLASHFIRE or dust explosion. When lightning strikes a steel or metal rod covered with dust, the dust would suddenly burn thus resulting to an explosion. A lightning may be in the form of:  HOT BOLT- longer in duration; capable only of igniting combustible materials Instructional Module of Fire Protection and Arson Investigation by Dr. Filibert Patrick F. Tad-awan Page | 11   COLD BOLT- shorter in duration; capable of splintering a property or literally blowing apart an entire structure; produces electrical current with tremendous amperage and very high temperature. B. ACCIDENTAL CAUSES OF FIRE Electrical Accidents 1. Short-circuit – unusual or accidental connection between two points at different potentials (charge) in an electrical circuit or relatively low resistance. 2. Arcing- production of sustained luminous electrical discharge between separate electrodes; an electrical hazard that results when electrical current crosses the gap between 2 electrical conductors. 3. Sparking- production of incandescent particles when two different potentials (Charged conductors) come in contact; occurs during short-circuits or welding operations. 4. Induced current – induced line surge – increase of electrical energy flow or power voltage; induced current; sudden increase of electrical current resulting to the burning of insulating materials, exploding of the fuse-box, or burning of active electrical appliances. 5. Overheating of electrical appliances- increase or rising of amperage while electric current is flowing in a transmission line resulting to the damage or destruction of insulating materials; maybe gradual or rapid; internal or external. Purely Accidental Causes- Negligence and other forms of human error C. INTENTIONAL CAUSES If in the burned property, there are preparations or traces of accelerant and plants and trailer then the cause of fire is intentional. 1. Accelerant - highly flammable chemicals that are used to facilitate flame propagation 2. Plant – the preparation and/or gathering of combustible materials needed to start a fire. 3. Trailer - the preparation of flammable substances in order to spread the fire. COMMON CAUSES OF FIRE: 1. Electrical short circuit 2. Electrical grounded circuit 3. Electrical overloading 4. Loose connection or improper splicing 5. LPG- Liquefied Petroleum Gas-It s colorless, tasteless, an odorless, but an oxidizing agent called “Ethyl Mercaptan” is introduced to determine leakage. 6. Spontaneous ignition- It is a decomposition process. All must contain a certain amount of moisture whose presence is essential to act as the catalyst so that combustion can occur. These substances or materials combine slowly with oxygen at ordinary (normal) room temperature to produce heat. If air cannot circulate freely in these finely divided particles or cannot escape to the atmosphere, the oxidation will gradually build to the point where AUTO IGNITION occurs and fire will propagate itself. 7. Incendiary fire 8. Natural fire - lightning, sunlight, volcanic eruption FIRE BEHAVIOR Thermal Balance and Thermal Imbalance:  Behavior of fire maybe further understood by considering the principle of thermal balance and thermal imbalance. THERMAL BALANCE refers to the rising movement or pattern of the fire; the normal behavior when the fire is undisturbed. Instructional Module of Fire Protection and Arson Investigation by Dr. Filibert Patrick F. Tad-awan Page | 12   THERMAL IMBALANCE, on the other hand is the abnormal movement of fire due to interference of foreign matter. Thermal imbalance often confuses the fire investigator in determining the exact point where the fire originated. Dangerous/ fatal behavior of fire: 1. BACKDRAFT is the sudden and rapid (violent) burning of heated gases in a confined area that occurs in the form of explosion. This may occur because of improper ventilation. If room is not properly ventilated, highly flammable vapors maybe accumulated such that when a door or a window is suddenly opened, the room violently sucks the oxygen and simultaneously, a sudden combustion may occur which may happen as an explosion (combustion explosion). 2. FLASHOVER is the sudden ignition of accumulated radical gases produced when there is incomplete combustion of fuels. It is the sudden burning of accumulated free radicals, which is initiated by a spark/flash produced when temperature rises until flash point is reached. When accumulated volume of radical gases suddenly burn, there will be a very intense fire that is capable of causing flames to jump at a certain distance in the form of FIREBALLS. Fireballs can travel to a hundred yards with in a few seconds. 3. BITEBACK is a fatal condition that takes place when the fire resists the extinguishment operation and becomes stronger and bigger instead. 4. FLASHFIRE is better known as dust explosion. This may happen when a metal post that is completely covered with dust is going to be hit by lightning. The dust particles covering the metal burn simultaneously thus creating a violent chemical reaction that produces a very bright flash followed by an explosion. THE STAGES OF FIRE 1. INCIPIENT PHASE- initial phase/ stage Characteristics: 1. Occurs when the four elements of the fire tetrahedron come together and combustion begins. 2. Can be caused by a spark or flame 3. Can occur when a material reaches its ignition temperature through self-heating 4. Limited to original materials ignited. 5. Small quantity of fire gases being generated. 6. Flame temperature above 1000°F yet room temperature is only slightly increased. 7. Easiest to extinguish 2. GROWTH/FREE BURNING PHASE Characteristics: 1. Accelerated pyrolytic processes take place 2. Development of convection current; formation of thermal column as heat rises 3. Fire plume begins to form above the burning fuel 4. Begins to draw air from the surrounding space into the plume 5. Hot gases rise, hit the ceiling and spread until they reach the walls 6. As fire grows, the overall temperature increases 7. Rollover/Flameover a. The ignition of combustible gases which have spread throughout the fire area b. Differs from flashover in that only combustible gases are burning c. One reason why firefighters stay low when entering a burning building d. Controlled by extinguishing main body of fire 8. Flame spread: movement of flame away from source of ignition Flashover 1. Transition between the growth stage and fully developed stage of a compartment fire 2. Occurs when flames flash over the entire surface of a room. 3. Occurs as a result of all the materials in the room reaching their ignition temperatures 4. Involves all exposed combustible surfaces in the compartment 5. Temperatures range from 900°F. – 1200°F. Instructional Module of Fire Protection and Arson Investigation by Dr. Filibert Patrick F. Tad-awan Page | 13  6. Survivability unlikely if caught in a flashover 3. FULLY DEVELOPED 1. All combustible materials in the compartment are involved 2. Releasing the maximum amount of heat and producing large amounts of fire gases 3. Hot unburned gases are flowing from the compartment and ignite when they enter a space with abundant air 4. DECAY/HOT SMOLDERING FIRE 1. As fuel is consumed, the rate of heat decreases 2. Amount of fire diminishes and temperature begins to decline 3. Glowing embers can maintain moderately high temperatures 4. Heat and pressure in the room builds up. 5. Building/ room contains large quantities of superheated fuel under pressure but little oxygen 6. When sufficient supply of oxygen is introduced, BACKDRAFT occurs. Backdraft (smoke explosion) 1. Explosion or rapid burning of heated gases. 2. Occurs when oxygen is introduced into a smoldering fire. 3. Often caused by improper ventilation. 4. Warning signs: a. Pressurized smoke exiting small openings b. Dense gray-yellow smoke c. Confinement and excessive heat d. Little or no visible flame e. Smoke leaving building in “puffs” (smoke puffing out and then sucking back in) f. Smoke-stained windows CLASSIFICATION OF FIRES A. Based on Cause: 1. Natural fire 2. Accidental fire 3. Intentional fire B. Based on Burning Fuel: 1. CLASS A FIRES- ordinary fires; type of fire resulting from the burning of wood, paper, textiles, rubber, and other carbonaceous materials. In short, this is the type of fire caused by ordinary combustible materials. 2. CLASS B FIRES- caused by flammable and/ or combustible liquids, such as kerosene, gasoline, benzene, oil products, alcohol and other hydrocarbon derivations. 3. CLASS C FIRES- electrical fires; fire that starts in live electrical wires, equipment, motors, electrical appliances and telephone switchboards. 4. CLASS D FIRES- fires that result from the combustion of certain metals in finely divided forms. These combustible metals include: Magnesium Potassium Powdered calcium Zinc Sodium Titanium Lithium Zirconium 5. CLASS K FIRES - Kitchen fires. FOUR PRODUCTS OF COMBUSTION 1. Heat – the product of combustion responsible for the spread of fire Injuries caused by heat are: a. dehydration Instructional Module of Fire Protection and Arson Investigation by Dr. Filibert Patrick F. Tad-awan Page | 14  b. heat exhaustion c. injury to the respiratory tract d. burn 2. Flame – it is the luminous body of a burning gas. When burning, gas is mixed with proper amount of oxygen; the flame becomes hotter and less luminous. This loss of luminosity is because of a more complete combustion of the carbon. The flame is the matter produced by fire. It is composed of burning incandescent gases. It is the manifestation of fire when the fire in its gas-phased combustion. Types of Flames: 1. According to color and completeness of combustion: a) LUMINOUS FLAME- reddish-orange in color; it deposits soot because it is a product of incomplete combustion; it has lower temperature. b) NON-LUMINOUS FLAME- bluish in color; it does not deposit soot because it is a product of complete combustion; it has a higher temperature than luminous flame. 2. According to Burning Fuel and Air Mixture: a) PREMIXED FLAME- e.g.: flame of a Bunsen burner b) H YDROCARBON- any substance containing primarily carbon and hydrogen c) DIFFUSION FLAME- e.g. flame of oxyacetylene torch d) (Diffused- dispersed; widely spread) 3. Based on Smoothness: a) LAMINAR FLAME- smooth flame b) TURBULENT FLAME- rough flame 3.Fire gases – in most fires, it consist of mixture of oxygen, carbon dioxide, carbon monoxide, nitrogen and finely divided particles (soot). 4.Smoke – some materials give off more smoke than others do. PROTECTION FROM FLAME, HEAT, AND SMOKE  In order to avoid injury or loss of life, protective outfit must be worn. Before entering a space where a fire exists, pant legs should be tucked into socks, collar should be buttoned. One should wear asbestos gloves, a helmet, a headlamp, an Oxygen Breathing Apparatus (OBA).  The flame and the heat from a fire are intense but proper dress will help to prevent burns. The smoke will make it hard to see and hard to breathe, but the OBA and the headlamp will help the person to cope up with these problems. INSUFFICIENT OXYGEN  Fire consumes an enormous amount of oxygen. So, when a fire occurs in a closed space, very little oxygen is left for men to breathe.  The amount of oxygen normally present in the air is 21 percent and human beings can breathe and work best.  When there is only 17 percent oxygen in the atmosphere, people breathe a little faster and deeper.  At 15 percent oxygen, a person is likely to become dizzy, having a buzzing in his ears, have a rapid heartbeat, and headache. At this amount of oxygen or less, it will not support combustion.  When the oxygen content falls to 9 percent, unconsciousness may occur.  When the oxygen content is 7 percent or less, DEATH is likely to occur. Instructional Module of Fire Protection and Arson Investigation by Dr. Filibert Patrick F. Tad-awan Page | 15  COMBUSTION GASES Some of the gases produced by a fire are toxic (poisonous) and others are dangerous in other ways, even though they are not toxic. CARBON MONOXIDE  Produced when fire occurs and there is not enough oxygen for the complete combustion of all the carbon in the burning material.  It has the chemical formula, CO, is a colorless, odorless, tasteless, and non-irritating gas.  It is deadly even in small concentration.  1.28 percent of CO in the air can cause unconsciousness after two or three breathes and will probably die in 1 to 3 minutes.  For 12.5 to 74 percent by volume, mixed with air, it will set off a violent explosion when exposed to a spark or flame. HYDROGEN SULFIDE (H2S)  It is a colorless gas.  In low concentration, it smells like rotten eggs.  It is generated in some fires, it also occurs as the result of the rotting of foods, cloth, leather, and other organic materials.  A percentage of 4.3 to 4.6 in the air is violently explosive in the presence of flame.  It is extremely poisonous if breathed, even in concentration as low as 0.01 percent.  Acute poisoning results from breathing and death can occur in a very few minutes from breathing an atmosphere that contain from 0.07 to 0.10 percent H 2S. CARBON DIOXIDE (CO2)  It is a colorless and odorless gas that is formed by the complete combustion of the carbon in burning materials.  CO2 is not poisonous, the main danger is it does not provide oxygen to breathe, and ASPHYXIATION may result.  The danger is greatly increased because CO2 is colorless and odorless, does not give any warning of its presence even when it is present in dangerous amount. Instructional Module of Fire Protection and Arson Investigation by Dr. Filibert Patrick F. Tad-awan Page | 16  MODULE 1 ACTIVITY Name: ______________________________ Date: ______________ Subject/Schedule: _____________________ Score: _____________ Instruction: Answer each question in a brief but complete manner. 1. Explain the chemistry of fire. _______________________________________________________________________ _______________________________________________________________________ _______________________________________________________________________ _______________________________________________________________________ _______________________________________________________________________ _______________________________________________________________________ _______________________________________________________________________ _______________________________________________________________________ _______________________________________________________________________ _______________________________________________________________________ _______________________________________________________________________ 2. Differentiate flashpoint from fire point. _______________________________________________________________________ _______________________________________________________________________ _______________________________________________________________________ _______________________________________________________________________ _______________________________________________________________________ _______________________________________________________________________ _______________________________________________________________________ _______________________________________________________________________ _______________________________________________________________________ _______________________________________________________________________ _______________________________________________________________________ 3. Discuss briefly the stages of fire. _______________________________________________________________________ _______________________________________________________________________ _______________________________________________________________________ _______________________________________________________________________ _______________________________________________________________________ _______________________________________________________________________ _______________________________________________________________________ _______________________________________________________________________ _______________________________________________________________________ _______________________________________________________________________ Instructional Module of Fire Protection and Arson Investigation by Dr. Filibert Patrick F. Tad-awan Page | 17  MODULE 1 POST TEST Name: ______________________________ Date: ______________ Subject/Schedule: _____________________ Score: _____________ Instruction: identify and match what is being asked in each item. Read each statement carefully and Match column A to column B. Write the letter and the word of your choice. COLUMN A COLUMN B 1. Refers to the various methods used to stop, A. 15 percent extinguish, and control destructive fire for eventual B. 21 percent prevention of loss of life and property. C. Accelerants D. Backdraft 2. Refers to the various methods or safety E. Carbon Monoxide measures utilized to prevent harmful or F. Conduction destructive fires from starting. G. Convection H. Decay Phase 3. Refers to the chemical reaction in which oxygen I. Fire chemically combines with the organic elements of J. Fire Prevention a combustible substance. K. Fire Protection L. Fire tetrahedron 4. Refers to the heat and light that comes from M. Fire Triangle burning substances produced by the combustion N. Fire point of substances. O. Flashover P. Flashpoint 5. Refers to the s the lowest degree at which the Q. Fully Developed Phase combustible material is ignited. R. Growth Phase S. Heat 6. Refers to the lowest temperature at which a T. Ignition Point substance gives off vapor that burns momentarily U. Incipient Phase (when a flame or spark is applied). V. Oxidation W. Pyrolysis 7. Refers to the temperature at which the fuel X. Radiation continues to burn after it has been ignited – that Y. Thermal Balance even if the source of ignition has been removed, the fuel continues to burn. ANSWER SHEET FOR MODULE 1 POST TEST 8. It is the chemical decomposition of a solid fuel through the action of heat. 1. 2. 9. a model for conveying the components of a fire which are heat, fuel and oxidizing agent. 3. 10. Refers to the a slightly more complex model to 4. describe the components needed to ignite and sustain a fire. It Refers to the a four-sided 5. geometric representation of the four factors necessary for fire: 6. 11. Heat conducted from one body to another 7. either by direct contact or by an intervening heat conducting medium. 8. 12. Transfer of heat energy by the movement of 9. air or liquid 10. 13. Transfer of heat by heat waves. 11. 14. Air is composed of how many percent oxygen? 12. 15. Generally, concentrations below ___ percent 13. will not support combustion 14. Instructional Module of Fire Protection and Arson Investigation by Dr. Filibert Patrick F. Tad-awan Page | 18 16. Refers to the highly flammable chemicals that are used to facilitate flame propagation 15. 17. Refers to the rising movement or pattern of 16. the fire; the normal behavior when the fire is undisturbed. 17. 18. Refers to the sudden and rapid (violent) 18. burning of heated gases in a confined area that occurs in the form of explosion. This may occur 19. because of improper ventilation. 20. 19. Refers to the sudden ignition of accumulated radical gases produced when there is incomplete 21. combustion of fuels. 22. 20. The stage of fire which occurs when the four elements of the fire tetrahedron come together 23. and combustion begins. 24. 21. The stage of fire where Accelerated pyrolytic processes take place. There is Development of 25. convection current formation of thermal column as heat rises and occurrence of rollover/flame over. 22. The stage of fire where all combustible materials in the compartment are involved Releasing the maximum amount of heat and producing large amounts of fire gases. 23. The stage of fire where Building/ room contains large quantities of superheated fuel under pressure but little oxygen and When sufficient supply of oxygen is introduced, BACKDRAFT occurs. 24. Refers to the product of combustion responsible for the spread of fire 25. Produced when fire occurs and there is not enough oxygen for the complete combustion of all the carbon in the burning material. Instructional Module of Fire Protection and Arson Investigation by Dr. Filibert Patrick F. Tad-awan Page | 19  MODULE 2 FIRE PROTECTION, PREVENTION AND CONTROL Module 2 covers the Firefighting apparatus and equipment, Firefighting equipment, First aid equipment, Personal protective equipment, Fire hoses and nozzles.Fire extinguishment theory, types of Portable fire extinguisher and ladders and the stages of Firefighting operations Objectives: In this chapter, the students shall be able to: 1. know the basic concept of fire protection, prevention and control. 2. Know the Firefighting apparatus and equipment, Firefighting equipment, First aid equipment, Personal protective equipment, Fire hoses and nozzles. 3. Know and explain the Fire extinguishment theory, types of Portable fire extinguisher and ladders and the stages of Firefighting operations MODULE 2 PRE-TEST : CRITICAL THINKING QUESTIONS Instruction: Answer the following questions briefly. Write your answer/s on the space provided after each question. 4. What is fire Protection? _____________________________________________________________________________ _____________________________________________________________________________ _____________________________________________________________________________ _____________________________________________________________________________ _____________________________________________________________________________ _____________________________________________________________________________ 5. What is hazard? _____________________________________________________________________________ _____________________________________________________________________________ _____________________________________________________________________________ _____________________________________________________________________________ _____________________________________________________________________________ _____________________________________________________________________________ 6. What is a fire extinguisher? _____________________________________________________________________________ _____________________________________________________________________________ _____________________________________________________________________________ _____________________________________________________________________________ _____________________________________________________________________________ _____________________________________________________________________________ Instructional Module of Fire Protection and Arson Investigation by Dr. Filibert Patrick F. Tad-awan Page | 20  MODULE 2 LESSON CONTEXT FIRE PROTECTION, PREVENTION AND CONTROL FIRE PROTECTION is the descriptive term referring to the various methods used to stop, extinguish, and control destructive fire for eventual prevention of loss of life and property. Four main objectives of fire protection: 1. To prevent destructive fire from starting 2. To extinguish (stop or put out) on going destructive fire 3. To confine a destructive fire at the place where it began 4. To prevent loss of life and property when fire starts FIRE PREVENTION is the descriptive term of the various methods or safety measures utilized to stop harmful or destructive fires from starting. Laws related with fire prevention and fire protection in the Philippine Setting include the following: 4. RA 9514, Revised Fire Code of the Philippine 5. PD#1096, Building Code of the Philippine February 1977 6. RA# 6975, The DILG Act of 1990 (Chapter 4, Section 53 – 59) It created the Bureau of Fire Protection (BFP) to be responsible for the prevention and suppression of all destructive fires and to enforce the laws on fire. FIRE HAZARD – any condition or act that increase or may cause increase in the probability that fire will occur or which may obstruct, delay, hinder or interfere with fire fighting operations and the safeguarding of life and property. CONDITIONS OF FIRE HAZARD: 1. Existence of dangerous or unlawful amount of combustible or explosives in the building not designed to store such materials. 2. Defective or improperly installed facilities or equipments. 3. Lack of adequate exit facilities. 4. Obstruction at fire escapes or other designated opening for firefighters. 5. Dangerous accumulation of rubbish waste and other highly combustible materials. 6. Accumulation of dust in ventilation system or of grease in the kitchen. 7. Building under repair. 8. Very old building or building is primarily made of combustible materials. FIRE FIGHTING APPARATUS AND EQUIPMENT FIREFIGHTING APPARATUS 1. Command Service Vehicle – refers to the vehicle where the fire chief usually ride and use as command post during the firefighting operation. Equipped with radio and other command equipment. 2. Pumper Truck/Fire Engine – a kind of firefighting apparatus designed to use diverse water supply sources as hydrants usually equipped with a water tank and a centrifugal pump. They are effective even at fire sites where water supply is limited or non-existent. Usually equipped with 4,000 liter tank. 3. Water Tanker – this apparatus enables to secure water in scarce areas for speedy firefighting operations. Usually equipped with 10,000 to 25,000 liters capacity of tanks. 4. Chemical Truck – capable of discharging foams which is the most effective means to extinguish not only ordinary Class A, but also Class B fires due to chemicals and flammable liquids. It is equipped with 2,500 liters water tank and the pump proportioning system. 5. Aerial Platform – a firefighting apparatus usually used in firefighting operations of high-rise structures. Used also in rescue operations. It has a working height of 27 meters (90 feet) from the ground. Instructional Module of Fire Protection and Arson Investigation by Dr. Filibert Patrick F. Tad-awan Page | 21 6. Break Squirt (Water Tower) – a firefighting apparatus equipped with breaking device and monitor nozzle which can reach a height of 23 meters, provide massive fire extinguishing capability especially in close quarters where extra maneuverability is essential. 7. Squirt – sometimes known as Squrt, is a firefighting apparatus equipped with monitor nozzle, which can be rotated 90 degrees horizontally, and 240 degrees vertically with stream pattern ranges from straight to full fog. 8. Rescue and Utility Truck – usually equipped with a winch, loaded with rescue equipment such as bas, rotary saws, hydraulic rescue tools, floodlights and power generators. This apparatus can perform rescue operations in case of fire, earthquake and other disasters. 9. Aerial Ladder – this firefighting apparatus is designed mainly for firefighting high-rise fires and can be used to rescue trapped people as well as to shoot water at high locations. Equipped with a lift and a basket. The rising angle covers from 10 to 25 degrees. 10. Lighting Tower Truck – this apparatus are essential to throw light on firefighting and rescue operations. It has a wide lighting range of 220 degrees. It is so powerful that a newspaper can be read at 100 feet or 32 meters from the light source. Equipment – those portable tools or appliance carried on fire apparatus but not permanently attached to or part of the apparatus. FIREFIGHTING EQUIPMENT 1. Straight Ladder – non-adjustable in length and consist only of one section. Sometimes it is called “wall ladder” and is used for quick access to windows and roofs of one and two-storey buildings. (12’, 14’, 16’, 18’, and 24’). 2. Extension Ladder – is adjustable in length. It consists of two or more sections, which travel in guides or brackets to permit length adjustments. 3. Portable Pumps – usually used during firefighting operations and equipped with fire hose. This is used if fighting fires in forests inaccessible by vehicle or areas with narrow roads. 4. Nozzle–a piece of firefighting equipment used to direct or control a stream of water. The characteristic of the stream of water or fire stream is determined mainly by the nozzle. 5. Variable Nozzle – this nozzle has a mechanism for changing 3 stages, stop, straight stream and fog. 6. Fog Gun – used to fight fire inside a building or underground by straight spot water application or fine fog application. 7. Straight Nozzle – used to fight fire and it is possible to speed up water stream rectified in the play pipe. 8. Fog Nozzle – it is possible to shoot fine water particles and change fog cones. 9. Revolving Nozzle – the nozzle tip revolves to speed water stream and extinguishes fire in attic or other confined places. 10.Monitor Nozzles/Deck Guns – these nozzles are used against large fires that need high pressure master streams. Located in the center of a pumper and can shoot water upon arrival at the scene. 11. Expansion Nozzles – used by mixing foam solution with water at adequate rates to discharge foam. Depending on the characteristic of fire, low, medium, and high expansion of foams are used properly. 12. Line Proportioner – usually installed in a hose line to suck in and mix foam solution to discharge foam. It is used to receive the supply of water from a pumper without a foam-mixing device. 13. Fire Hose – a type of flexible tube used by firefighters to carry water under pressure from the source of supply to a point where it is discharged to extinguish fire. 14. Hose Hoist – a device over which rope or hose may be pulled to raise or lower equipment when firefighters are operating in buildings above the ground level. 15. Hose Clamp – is a tool to shut off the water in hose lines when other control valves are not applicable. Instructional Module of Fire Protection and Arson Investigation by Dr. Filibert Patrick F. Tad-awan Page | 22 16. Hose Jacket – is used to seal small cuts or breaks, which may occur in fire hose, or to connect mismatched or damaged coupling of the same size. 17. Hose Spanner Wrench – used to tighten or loosen hose couplings, but this versatile tool can also be used to close utility cocks, pry and hammer. RESCUE EQUIPMENT 1. Hydraulic Rescue Equipment – used to rescue victims by hydraulically removing, pulling, bending or cutting obstacles. 2. Hydraulic Cutter and Spreader – cutting operation used hydraulic cutters in narrow space being spread by spreaders in rescue operations. 3. Pneumatic Rescue Equipment – are used to rescue victims by pneumatically removing, moving, pulling, bending or cutting obstacles. 4. Pneumatic Cutter and Spreader – these cutting and spreading tool uses air pressure to operate. 5. Portable Generator – can be carried as a simple power source for light and to power other equipment. 6. Air Blower – is used to remove toxic smokes or send fresh air into an oxygen deficient disaster scene. 7. Oxygen Cutter – special torch supplies oxygen and electricity to a cutting rod to heat it up and cut metal, non-metal and plastics. 8. Acetylene Cutter – mixes acetylene and oxygen to burn the mixture at the nozzle tip to cut metal. 9. Air Chisel – cuts thin steel plates such as in vehicular or heavy metal plates by the motive of power of compressed air in non-rotating method. 10. Air Saw – this saw cuts metals by reciprocating a saw-tooth attached to a piston. 11. Rotary Saw – powered by small engine, this saw cuts concrete or wood by speedily rotating a disc blade. It can be operated by any angle by means of a diaphragm-type carburetor. 12. Hammer Drill – powered by a series wound commutator motor, it drills and crushes rock or brick. 13. Rock Drill – powered by a small engine, crushes concrete, rock or brick by rotating or reciprocating a drill. 14. Portable Radio – used to communicate commands or information at the scene of fire or any other situations. FIRST AID EQUIPMENT 1. Oxygen Inhalator – used to mechanically supply a certain amount of oxygen to a victim who needs oxygen inhalation. 2. Artificial Respirator – used to apply an artificial respiration to a breathless patient after maintaining the airway, assist in breathing of or give oxygen to a self-breathing patient. 3. Pulse Oxymeter – designed to measure the pulse frequency and oxygen saturation in arterial blood of a patient. This can also measure electro-cardiac wave pattern or blood pressure. 4. Semiautomatic Defibrillator – designed to electrically remove fibrillation of the cardiac ventricle. This device can automatically analyze the electro-cardiac wave pattern of a patient. 5. Quick Thermometer – detecting the infrared energy emitted from the patient’s eardrum. This thermometer measures the temperature of one’s brain in a short time (about 3 seconds). PERSONAL PROTECTIVE EQUIPMENT Personal Protective Equipment – refers to the proper clothing and equipment to provide a firefighter protection on hostile environments where they perform their duties. Inherited limitations must be Instructional Module of Fire Protection and Arson Investigation by Dr. Filibert Patrick F. Tad-awan Page | 23 recognized to avoid overextending its range of protection. This equipment does not necessarily mean guarantee the firefighter’s safety but can reduce and prevented if properly used. PERSONAL PROTECTIVE EQUIPMENT IN STRUCTURAL FIREFIGHTING 1. Helmet – protects the head from impact and puncture as well as scalding water. Functions of Helmets a. Shed water b. Protect the head from impact c. Protect the head from heat and cold d. Provide face-shield for secondary protection of the face and eyes when SCBA is not required 2. Eye Protection – provides protection against flying particles or splashes especially chemical splashes. Kinds of Eye Protection a. Safety Glasses b. Safety Goggles c. Helmet Face-shields d. SCBA Mask 3. Hearing Protection – limits noise-induced damage to the firefighter’s ears when loud noise situations cannot be avoided. Examples a. Intercom/ear protection b. Earmuffs/ear plugs 4. Protective Hoods – protects the portions of the firefighter’s face, ears and neck not covered by the helmet or coat. 5. Protective Coats and Trousers – protect the trunks and limbs against cuts, abrasions and burn injuries and provide limited protection from corrosive liquids. a. Firefighter’s Protective Coat 3 components of a protective coat 1. Outer Shell 2. Moisture Barrier 3. Thermal Barrier The Moisture and Thermal Barrier serves to trap insulating air that inhibits the transfer of heat from the outside to the firefighter’s body. These components protects the firefighter from direct flame contact, hot waters and vapors, cold temperatures and any number of environmental hazards. b. Firefighter’s Protective Trousers – same as the principle of protective coats except for lower extremities. 6. Hand Protection – protects the hands from cuts, wounds and burn injuries. 7. Safety Shoes and Boots – protect the feet from burn injuries, punctures, wounds and insulated materials/environment. Kinds of Protective Boots a. For firefighting and emergency activities b. Safety shoes for fire station wear that includes inspection, emergency responses and similar activities. 8. Self-Contained Breathing Apparatus (SCBA) – protects the face and lungs from toxic smoke and products of combustion. Four common hazardous atmospheres associated with fires and other emergencies. a. Oxygen Deficiency – the combustion process consumes oxygen while producing gases that either physically displaces or dilutes its concentration. Instructional Module of Fire Protection and Arson Investigation by Dr. Filibert Patrick F. Tad-awan Page | 24 Physiological Effects of Reduced Oxygen (Hypoxia) Oxygen Percentage Symptoms 21 None; normal conditions 17 Some impairment on the muscular coordination, increase in respiratory rate to compensate for lower oxygen content 12 Dizziness, headache and rapid fatigue 9 Unconsciousness 6 Death within a few minutes from respiratory failure and concurrent heart failure b. Elevated Temperature– if air is moist, respiratory tract damage can be much worse; can cause serious decrease in blood pressure and circulatory system failure; inhaled heating gases can cause pulmonary edema. c. Smoke – suspension of small particles of carbon, tar and dust floating in a combination of heated gases. d. Toxic Atmosphere Toxic atmosphere associated with fire Factors that particular gases give off: Nature of combustible Rate of heating Temperature of the evolved gases Oxygen concentration Toxic atmosphere not associated with fire Industrial processes Confined spaces Breathing Apparatus Limitations a. Limitations of wearer 1. Physical Physical Agility Facial Features 2. Medical Neurological Functioning Muscular/Skeletal Condition Cardiovascular Condition Respiratory Functioning 3. Mental Adequate training in equipment use Self Confidence Emotional Stability b. Limitations to wearer Limited visibility Decreased ability to communicate Increase weight (additional 11-16 pounds depending on the design) Decreased mobility c. Limitations of air supply Physical condition of user Degree of physical exertion Cylinder pressure before use Training and experience of user Types of Breathing Apparatus 1. Open-circuit – most commonly used in the fire service, uses compressed air. 2. Closed-circuit – uses compressed air or liquid oxygen, also known as Rebreather Apparatus because the user’s exhaled air stage within the system reuse. SCBA Assemblies Backpack and harness assembly Air cylinder assembly Regulator assembly Face-piece assembly 2 methods of donning the SCBA 1. Over-the-head method 2. Coat method/Backpack method Note: Donning means how to place your SCBA for use. Doffing, on the other hand refers to the removal of the SCBA after use. Instructional Module of Fire Protection and Arson Investigation by Dr. Filibert Patrick F. Tad-awan Page | 25 9. PASS (Personal Alert Safety Systems) – provides life-safety protection by emitting a loud shriek if the firefighter should collapse or remain motionless for approximately 30 seconds. This is also called Personal Alert Device (PAD). FIRE HOSES AND NOZZLES Fire Hose – a type of flexible tube used by firefighters to carry water under pressure from the source of supply to a point where it is discharged. It is the most used item in the fire service. It is used for a number of functions during firefighting operations. Major Fibers or Materials Used in the Construction of the Outer Jacket of Fire Hose: a. Cotton b. Nylon c. Rayon d. Vinyl e. Rubber blends f. Polyester fibers Fire Hose Length 50 ft or 15 meters 100 ft or 30 meters Dimensions of Hose (1925) – 2 ½”, 3”, 3 ½”, 4 ½” (1935) – ¾”, 1”, 1 ½” (1955) – 4”, 5”, 6” Hose Classification by Use 1. Attack Hose – any hose that is used directly to control and extinguish fire. a. Fire department hose – fabric-jacket or rubber-covered construction b. Forestry hose – single-jacket hose c. Standpipe hose – single-jacket hose d. Booster hose – rubber-covered hose 2. Supply Hose – designed to move large volume of water at low pressures, larger than attack hose a. Medium diameter hose – 2 ½” or 3” both for attack and supply hose b. Large diameter hose – 3 ½”, 4”, 4 ½”, 5”, 6”, woven-jacket or rubber-covered 3. Intake Hose – used to connect a fire department pumper or a portable pump to a nearby water source. a. Soft-sleeve hose b. Hard suction hose 4. Fire Extinguisher Hose – used on large extinguisher units that may be stationary, wheeled or vehicle mounted. a. Conventional extinguisher hose – discharge at pressure no greater than 400 psi b. High pressure extinguisher hose – can withstand pressure up to 1,250 psi Hose Classification by Construction 1. Woven-Jacket a. Unlined fire hose - no inner tube or liner. Used for forestry and standpipe. b. Lined fire hose – consists of one or more woven-fabric seamless jackets into which a rubber tube has been inserted or vulcanized; leak-proof and reduces friction at high velocity; which can withstand higher internal pressure and more resistant to damage by abrasion. 2. Rubber-Covered – the hose has a rubberized cover that is mildew-proof and resist damage by abrasion and contact with chemicals; a woven-tube made of polyester, nylon or a combination of synthetic fibers coated with nitrite rubber. 3. Braided Hose – used in manufacture of booster hose and fire extinguisher hose; a rubber liner is covered with several alternate layers of braided yarn and rubber then vulcanized. 4. Wrapped Hose – for hard suction hose. Constructed by wrapping several layers of diagonally cut fabric around an extruded rubber tube. Fire Hose Couplings–are made of durable materials and designed so that it is possible to couple and uncouple them with little effort in a short time. Instructional Module of Fire Protection and Arson Investigation by Dr. Filibert Patrick F. Tad-awan Page | 26 Materials Used for Fire Hose Coupling Brass alloy Aluminum alloy Magnesium Manufacturing Techniques Drop forged: hardest Extruded: somewhat weaker than drop forged Cast: weakest Types of Fire Hose Couplings 1. Threaded Couplings – designed by casting or machining of a spiral thread into the face of two distinctly different coupling, a male and a female. a. Male – cut on the exterior surface b. Female – cut on the interior surface 2. Sexless Coupling – no distinct male and female components, so both couplings are identical. a. Quarter-Turn – has two hook-like lugs on each coupling; mated and rotates 90 degrees clockwise to lock. b. Storz – similar to Quarter-turn couplings in that they are connected by joining and rotating until locked into place. Locking components consists of grooved lugs and inset rings built into the face of each coupling swivels. 3. Snap Coupling – have both male and female components. The female coupling has a shallow bowl that fits over the end of the male coupling. When a connection is made, two spring-loaded hooks on the female coupling engaged a raised ring around the shank of the male coupling. Parts of a Coupling 1. Swivel – permits connecting two sections of hose without twisting the entire hose. 2. Higbee cut – a flattened angle at the end of the thread to prevent cross-threading when couplings are connected. 3. Higbee cut indicator – scalloped with a shallow indentation to aid in matching the male coupling thread to the female coupling. 4. Shank – the portion that serves as a point of attachment to hose (sometimes called tailpiece or shell) 5. Lugs – a handle, to aid in tightening and loosening connections. Located on the shank of male and swivel at female. Types of Coupling Lugs 1. Rocker lug – usually found on couplings of older hose designs. Tendency to hang up when hose is dragged over objects. 2. Recessed lug – shallow holes drilled into the coupling. 3. Pin lug – a protruding round-shaped lug. Hose Appliances – any piece of hardware used in conjunction with fire hose for the purpose of delivering water. 1. Valves Ball valves Gate valves Butterfly valves Clapper valves 2. Valve devices Wye appliances Siamese appliances Water thief appliances Large diameter hose appliances Hydrant valves 3. Fittings Adapter Reducer 4. Intake devices Suction hose strainer Hose Tools – is also a hardware used for the purpose of delivering water but do not have water flowing through them 1. Hose Jacket 2. Hose Clamp 3. Spanner, Hydrant wrench and Rubber Mallet 4. Hose Bridge or Ramp 5. Chaffing Block 6. Hose Strap, Hose Rope and Hose Chain Instructional Module of Fire Protection and Arson Investigation by Dr. Filibert Patrick F. Tad-awan Page | 27 Functions, Use or Application of Hose 1. Hose for Fire Attack a. Extinguishment b. Fire Control-Confinement/Exposure 2. Hose for Water Supply a. Relay b. Transfer c. Suction d. Drafting 3. Hose for Rescue a. protects rescuer from products of combustion b. hose as a guide c. hose as a rope 4. Hose for Salvage as Dike Hose Rolls 1. Straight Roll 2. Donut Roll (method 1, 2,3) 3. Twin Donut Roll 4. Self-locking Twin Donut Roll Hose Carries 1. Shoulder Loop Carry 2. Accordion Shoulder Carry a. from hose on the ground b. from hose in an accordion – loaded hose beds c. from hose in other hose bed loads 3. Modified Accordion Shoulder Carry 4. Horseshoe Shoulder Carry Nozzles – a device that directs water from the hose to the fire. It forms the water into a fire stream and controls the stream so that fire is extinguished in the most efficient manner. Two Parts of a Nozzle 1. Shut-off valve – controls the amount of water that flows through the tip. 2. Tip – the component that forms the streams. Kinds of Nozzles 1. Solid-stream nozzle – its streams can penetrate a mass of burning material when a fire is deep-seated. 2. Fog nozzle – it produces a fire stream made of small droplets of water that leave the tip in a spray or ‘fog’ pattern. 3. Exposure nozzle – designed to protect a building or object from the heat generated by nearby burning building. It produces fan-shaped stream, called a water curtain. 4. Applicator nozzle – designed to direct a water stream directly over the surface of a burning object. 5. Master stream devices – this larger device to include monitor, deluges, turret pipes, and ladder pipes. Breaking a Tight Screw-Thread Connection 1. Knee-pressed method (one-person) – the principle of this method is the compression of the hose gasket permits the swivel to turn more easily. 2. Stiff-arm method (two-persons) – this method uses the principle of leverage. 3. Spanner-wrench method – spanner wrenches can be used to break tight connections. Attaching a Nozzle to a Hose 1. Method 1 – hold the nozzle firmly in one hand and the male coupling in the opposite hand. Bend the knee on the nozzle side slightly and rest the coupling on the thigh. Place the nozzle threads in alignment against the coupling threads, and then turn the nozzle clockwise to complete the connection. 2. Method 2 – Place one foot on the hose directly behind the male coupling and apply pressure to tilt the coupling upward. Holding the nozzle in both hands, place it against the upturned male coupling and turn the nozzle clockwise to make the connection. FIRE EXTINGUISHMENT  Fire Extinguishment Theory Instructional Module of Fire Protection and Arson Investigation by Dr. Filibert Patrick F. Tad-awan Page | 28  “To extinguish a fire, interrupt or eliminate the supply of any or all of the elements of fire. Fire can be extinguished by reducing/ lowering the temperature, eliminating the fuel supply, or by stopping the chemical chain reaction.”  4 general methods of fire extinguishment: 1. Extinguishment by Temperature Reduction - Cooling the temperature of the fire environment; usually done by using water. - Lower down the temperature to cool the fuel to a point where it does not produce sufficient vapors that burn 2. Extinguishment by Fuel Removal - Elimination of the fuel supply/ source which maybe done by: a. stopping the flow of liquid fuel b. preventing the production of flammable gas c. removing the solid fuel at the fire path d. allowing the fire to burn until the fuel is consumed 3. Extinguishment by Oxygen Dilution a. reduction of oxygen concentration at the burning area b. by introducing inert gases c. by separating oxygen from the fuel 4. Extinguishment by Chemical Inhibition - Some extinguishment agents, like dry chemical and halon, interrupt the production of flame resulting to rapid extinguishment of fire. This method is effective only in burning gas and liquid fuels as they cannot burn in smoldering mode of combustion. Methods of extinguishing the 4 classes of fire: 1. CLASS A FIRES – by quenching and cooling; water is the best agent in cooling the burning solid material; water has quenching effect that can reduce the temperature of a burning material below its ignition temperature; (Fire extinguishers which have water, sand acid, foam and special solution containing alkali methyl dust, as found in the loaded stream extinguisher, should be used for this type of fire.) 2. CLASS B FIRES – by smothering or blanketing (oxygen exclusion). This type of fire is put out or controlled by foam, loaded stream, carbon dioxide, dry chemical and vaporizing liquid. 3. CLASS C FIRES – controlled by a non-conditioning extinguishing agent; the safest procedure is to always de-energize the electrical circuit. Extinguishers that should be used to put out these type of fires are: Carbon Dioxide Extinguishers Dry Chemical Vaporizing liquids 4. CLASS D FIRES – by using special extinguishing agents marked specifically for metals. GE type, meth LX, Lith X, Meth L, Kyl, dry sand and dry talc can put out class D fires.  FIRE EXTINGUISHER defined:  A FIRE EXTINGUISHER is a mechanical device, usually made of metal, containing chemicals, fluids, or gases stopping fires, the means for application of its contents for the purpose of putting out fire (particularly small fire) before it propagates, and is capable of being readily moved from place to place.  A FIRE EXTINGUISHER is a portable device used to put out fires of limited size. Instructional Module of Fire Protection and Arson Investigation by Dr. Filibert Patrick F. Tad-awan Page | 29  General Operating Procedure in Fire Extinguishment: P – Pull the pin at the top of the extinguisher that keeps the handle from being pressed. Press the plastic or thin wire inspection band. P – Point the nozzle or outlet toward the fire. Some hose assemblies are dipped to the extinguisher body. Release it and then point at the base of the fire. P – Press the handle above the carrying handle to discharge the extinguishing agent inside. The handle can b released to stop the discharge at any time. S – Sweep the nozzle sideways at the base of the flame to disperse the extinguishing agent. After the fire is out, probe for remaining smoldering hot spots or possible reflash of flammable liquids. Make sure the fire is out before leaving the burned area. PORTABLE FIRE EXTINGUISHER AND LADDERS TYPES OF FIRE EXTINGUISHERS Portable Fire Extinguisher – is a device that contains chemicals, fluids and gasses for extinguishing and used for small area of fire. It is designed to fight small incipient or unusual ones that is not easily put out by water. TYPES OF EXTINGUISHING AGENTS 1. Dry Chemical a. Monoammonium phosphate – also known as “tri-class”, “multipurpose” or “ABC” dry chemical, used on class A, B and C fires. It receives its class A rating from the agent’s ability to melt and flow at 177°C (350 °F) to smother the fire. More corrosive than other dry chemical agents. Pale yellow in color. b. Sodium bicarbonate– "regular" or "ordinary" used on class B and C fires, was the first of the dry chemical agents developed. In the heat of a fire, it releases a cloud of carbon dioxide that smothers the fire. That is, the gas drives oxygen away from the fire, thus stopping the chemical reaction. c. Potassium bicarbonate – (aka Purple-K), used on class B and C fires. About two times as effective on class B fires as sodium bicarbonate, it is the preferred dry chemical agent of the oil and gas industry. Violet in color. d. Potassium bicarbonate & Urea Complex (aka Monnex/Powerex) – used on Class B and C fires. More effective than all other powders due to its ability to decrepitate (where the powder breaks up into smaller particles) in the flame zone creating a larger surface area for free radical inhibition. Grey in color. e. Potassium Chloride – or Super-K dry chemical was developed in an effort to create a high efficiency, protein-foam compatible dry chemical. Developed in the 60s, prior to Purple-K, it was never as popular as other agents since, being a salt, it was quite corrosive. For B and C fires, white in color. f. MET-L-KYL / PYROKYL – is a specialty variation of sodium bicarbonate for fighting pyrophoric liquid fires (ignite on contact with air). In addition to sodium bicarbonate, it also contains silica gel particles. The sodium bicarbonate interrupts the chain reaction of the fuel and the silica soaks up any unburned fuel, preventing contact with air. It is effective on other class B fuels as well. Blue/Red in color. 2. Foams a. AFFF (aqueous film forming foam) – used on A and B fires and for vapor suppression. The most common type in portable foam extinguishers. It contains fluoro tensides which can be Instructional Module of Fire Protection and Arson Investigation by Dr. Filibert Patrick F. Tad-awan Page | 30  accumulated in the human body. The long-term effects of this on the human body and environment are unclear at this time. b. AR-AFFF (Alcohol-resistant aqueous film forming foams) – used on fuel fires containing alcohol. Forms a membrane between the fuel and the foam preventing the alcohol from breaking down the foam blanket. c. FFFP (film forming fluoroprotein) – contains naturally occurring proteins from animal by- products and synthetic film-forming agents to create a foam blanket that is more heat resistant than the strictly synthetic AFFF foams. FFFP works well on alcohol-based liquids and is used widely in motorsports. d. CAFS (compressed air foam system) – Any APW style extinguisher that is charged with a foam solution and pressurized with compressed air. Generally used to extend a water supply in wildland operations. Used on class A fires and with very dry foam on class B for vapor suppression. e. Arctic Fire – is a liquid fire extinguishing agent that emulsifies and cools heated materials more quickly than water or ordinary foam. It is used extensively in the steel industry. Effective on classes A, B, and D. f. FireAde – foaming agent that emulsifies burning liquids and renders them non-flammable. It is able to cool heated material and surfaces similar to CAFS. Used on A and B (said to be effective on some class D hazards, although not recommended due to the fact that fireade still contains amounts of water which will react with some metal fires). 3. Water a. APW (Air pressurized water) – a cools burning material by absorbing heat from burning material. Effective on Class A fires, it has the advantage of being inexpensive, harmless, and relatively easy to clean up. In the United States, APW units contain 2.5 gallons (9 liters) of water in a tall, stainless steel cylinder. In Europe, they are typically mild steel lined with polyethylene, painted red, containing 6–9 liters (1.75–2.5 gallons) of water. b. Water Mist – uses a fine misting nozzle to break up a stream of deionized water to the point of not conducting electricity back to the operator. Class A and C rated. It is used widely in hospitals for the reason that, unlike other clean-agent suppressants, it is harmless and non-contaminant. These extinguishers come in 1.75 and 2.5 gallon units, painted white in the United States and red in Europe. 4. Wet Chemical and Water Additives a. Wet Chemical (potassium acetate, carbonate, or citrate) – extinguishes the fire by forming a soapy foam blanket over the burning oil and by cooling the oil below its ignition temperature. Generally class A and K (F in Europe) only, although newer models are outfitted with misting nozzles as those used on water mist units to give these extinguishers class B and C firefighting capability. b. Wetting Agents– Detergent based additives used to break the surface tension of water and improve penetration of Class A fires. c. Antifreeze– Chemicals added to water to lower its freezing point to about −40 °F. Has no appreciable effect on extinguishing performance. 5. Clean Agents and Carbon Dioxide a. Halocarbon replacements, HCFC Blend B (Halotron I, American Pacific Corporation), HFC-227ea (FM-200, Great Lakes Chemicals Corporation), and HFC-236fa (FE-36, DuPont), - Considerations for halon replacement include human toxicity when used in confined spaces, ozone depleting potential, and greenhouse warming potential. The three recommended agents meet minimum performance standards, but uptake has been slow because of disadvantages. Specifically, they require two to three times the concentration to extinguish a fire compared with Halon 1211. They are heavier than halon, require a larger bottle because they are less effective, and have greenhouse gas potential. Research continues to find better alternatives. Instructional Module of Fire Protection and Arson Investigation by Dr. Filibert Patrick F. Tad-awan Page | 31  b. CO2 – a clean gaseous agent which displaces oxygen. Highest rating for 7.7 kg (20 pound) portable CO2 extinguishers is 10B:C. Not intended for Class A fires, as the high-pressure cloud of gas can scatter burning materials. CO2 is not suitable for use on fires containing their own oxygen source, metals or cooking media. Although it can be rather successful on a person on fire, its use should be avoided where possible as it can cause frostbite and is dangerous to use as it may displace the oxygen needed for breathing, causing suffocation. c. Mixtures of inert gases, including Inergen and Argonite. d. Compressed CO2 sprinkler – is another design used to fight the electric fires with cubic cylinder of 7 cubic meter starting from 1 meter above the sprinkler level. 6. Dry Powders a. Sodium Chloride (Super-D, Met-L-X or METAL.FIRE.XTNGSHR) – contains sodium chloride salt and thermoplastic additive. Plastic melts to form an oxygen-excluding crust over the metal, and the salt dissipates heat. Useful on most alkali metals including sodium and potassium, and other metals including magnesium, titanium, aluminum, and zirconium. b. Copper based (Copper Powder Navy125S) – developed by the U.S. Navy in the 70s for hard-to-control lithium and lithium-alloy fires. Powder smothers and acts as a heat sink to dissipate heat, but also forms a copper-lithium alloy on the surface which is non-combustible and cuts off the oxygen supply. Will cling to a vertical surface-lithium only. c. Graphite based (G-Plus, G-1, Lith-X, Pyromet or METAL.FIRE.XTNGSHR) – contains dry graphite that smothers burning metals. First type developed, designed for magnesium, works on other metals as well. Unlike sodium chloride powder extinguishers, the graphite powder fire extinguishers can be used on very hot burning metal fires such as lithium, but unlike copper powder extinguishers will not stick to and extinguish flowing or vertical lithium fires. Like copper extinguishers, the graphite powder acts as a heat sink as well as smothering the metal fire. d. Sodium carbonate based (Na-X) – used where stainless steel piping and equipment could be damaged by sodium chloride based agents to control sodium, potassium, and sodium-potassium alloy fires. Limited use on other metals. Smothers and forms a crust. Common Parts of a Portable Fire Extinguisher 1. Pressure gauge 2. Safety pin 3. Trigger lever 4. Handle 5. Hose 6. Nozzle 7. Cylinder/tank 8. Syphon tube 9. Base 10. Inspection tag 11. Information label Servicing and Maintenance (under Section 10.5.3.3IRR of R.A. 9514) a. Maintenance and servicing of fire extinguishers shall be performed periodically, but at least once every twelve (12) months, after each use, or when an inspection shows that the need is obvious. b. Hydrostatic test shall be performed every five (5) years. Other Maintenance Procedure a. Weighing b. Obvious physical defects c. Pressure check d. Turning upside-down (for dry chemicals) – to prevent the chemical from settling and becoming hard or compact How to Use P – Pull the pin A – Aim the nozzle at the base of the fire S – Squeeze the trigger lever S – Sweep side to side Instructional Module of Fire Protection and Arson Investigation by Dr. Filibert Patrick F. Tad-awan Page | 32 Safety Tips in Using Do not aim towards anyone or animals, it can cause harm Don’t sweep up and down to the fire. Keep a distance of about 4-6 feet from the base of the fire. When using indoors, be sure that the wind direction is not towards you, make sure that your direction is windward. When using indoors, make sure that you are near an exit to be able to escape fast if you fail to extinguish the fire. LADDERS Ground Ladders Ladder – a piece of equipment composed of 2 side rails joined by rungs at equal interval used for ascending and descending. Types of Ground Ladders 1. Single/Straight/Wall Ladder 2. Roof Ladder 3. Folding Ladder 4. Extension Ladder 5. Pole/Bangor Ladder 6. Combination/A-Frame Ladder 7. Pompier Ladder Parts of a Ground Ladder 1. Beam 12. Protection Plates 2. Bed Section 13. Pulley 3. Butt 14. Rails 4. Butt Spurs 15. Rungs 5. Fly Section 16. Stops 6. Footpads 17. Tie Ro