Introduction to Linguistics PDF

INTRODUCTION languages, emphasizing the technical aspects of how language operates. Linguistics 1762 – Bishop Robert Lowth: Published "A  is the scie...

INTRODUCTION languages, emphasizing the technical aspects of how language operates. Linguistics 1762 – Bishop Robert Lowth: Published "A  is the scientific study of language. Short Introduction to English Grammar with  Phonetics - the study of speech sounds Critical Notes", which became highly in their physical aspects influential in prescribing English grammar rules  Phonology - the study of speech sounds and standardizing its usage. in their cognitive aspects 1857–1913 – Ferdinand de Saussure: Known  Morphology - the study of the as the father of modern linguistics, Saussure formation of words introduced concepts of descriptive linguistics  Syntax - the study of the formation of and structural linguistics, laying the sentences groundwork for understanding language as a  Semantics - the study of meaning system of signs.  Pragmatics - the study of language use 1960 – Noam Chomsky: Revolutionized 1. Historical Linguistics linguistics with his theory of syntactic  how languages change over time and grammar and generative grammar, focusing the relationships between different on the innate structures of the human mind that languages enable language acquisition. 2. Sociolinguistics THE  relationship between language and society, focusing on how social factors EVOLUTION OF HUMAN like class, ethnicity, and gender LANGUAGE influence language use and variation Where did language came from? 3. Psycholinguistics  God’s gift to mankind  cognitive processes involved in  Human invention language comprehension, production, and acquisition.  Cries of nature 4. Ethnolinguistics (or Anthropological DIVINE LANGUAGE THEORY Linguistics) a. Judeo-Christian Tradition  relationship between language and  When God created the first human culture within specific communities or beings (Adam and Eve) He created them societies in His own image (Genesis1:26-27). 5. Dialectology This likeness unquestionably included 6. Computational Linguistics the ability to engage in intelligible 7. Neurolinguistics speech via human language and he gave Macro linguistics to Adam in the Garden of Eden  is the study of language in relation to dominion over all the animals, and broader social, cultural, Adam‘s first exercise of this dominion psychological, and biological contexts. consisted in naming them. It examines how language functions b. Egyptian across societies, influences  Thoth communication, and interacts with other c. Babylonian disciplines like sociology, psychology,  Nabu and anthropology. d. Islam Micro linguistics  The two divine religions, Islam and  focuses on the internal structure of Christianity, agree on the same fact that language, analyzing elements like language is a gift of God to humanity. phonetics, phonology, morphology, the Holy Quran in the Surah Al-Baqara syntax, and semantics. It studies the (The Cow) the following verse: ―And specific rules and patterns within He taught Adam the names of all things; then He placed them before the angels,  and said: ‗Tel[l me the names of these if Phrygia in the northwest corner of what ye are right‘‖ Both of these divine is now Turkey. Based on this expressions indicate clearly that experiment, this ancient language, mankind was created from the beginning which has long since died out, was with an innate capacity to use language. thought to be the original language. e. Hinduism Second Experiment: 13th Century  Brahma was the creator and introduced - Holy Roman Emperor Frederick II of Sanskrit language to the Sages of Hosenstaufen - but the children died celestial bodies. Therefore, this before they uttered a single word. language is also called Dev Vani, which Third Experiment: 1473 – 1513 means the language of gods. It was - James IV of Scotland - The Scottish during 18th century when a similarity children ―spak very guid Ebrew.‖ between Sanskrit, Latin and Greek was Hebrew was the language used in the found, which gave the reason to study Garden of Eden. and discover the relationship of all Indo- 16th Century European languages. The earliest form - Johannes Goropius Becanus - The of Sanskrit language was Vedic belief that the language one speaks is Sanskrit that came approximately superior in all terms to all other around 1500-200 B.C. This was the languages is called linguistic period when knowledge was imparted chauvinism. ―All languages derived orally through the generations. ultimately from Brabantic‖  Divine Theory Hindus: Sarasvati 1830 The original pronunciations of Vedic Sanskrit - Protolanguage – Noah Webster = was sacred and must be preserved.. This led to Aramaic important linguistic study, since their language - Chaldee the language spoken in had already changed greatly since the hymns of Jerusalem during the Roman the Vedas had been written. occupation. Sage Panini 1887  was an ancient Indian scholar and - Joseph Elkins - In 1887, Joseph Elkins grammarian, often regarded as the maintained that there is no other father of Sanskrit grammar and a language which can be more reasonable foundational figure in linguistics. assumed to be the speech first used in  First Linguist knows to us the world‘s gray morning than can  wrote a detailed grammar of Sanskrit in Chinese. which the phonological rules revealed Natural Evolution Theory the earlier pronunciation for use in Continuity View religious worship. - those who view language ability as a THE DIVINE SOURCE OF LANGUAGE difference in degree between humans First Experiment: 664 - 610 BC and other primates - The Greek Historian Herodotus Discontinuity View reported that the Egyptian pharaoh - those who see the onset of language Psammetichhus sought to determine the ability as a qualitative leap – the most primitive ―natural‖ language by discontinuity view experimental methods. Theory of Natural Selection by Charles - The monarch was said to have placed Darwin in 1838 two infants in isolated mountain hut, to - He had privately applied it since then to be cared for by a mute servant. human emotion, language, and - The first uttered word was bekos, the cognition. word for “bread” in Phrygian, the Homo sapiens language spoken in a province of  - emerged within the last 150,000 years or "wow") in response to by 30,000, BC. emotions, pain, or other stimuli. - "the wise human― - Bow-wow hypothesis (The Homo loquens Onomatopoetic Theory of Word - "the speaking human" Origins) Hemispheric lateralization o Claims that language started - Refers to the specialization of the two with humans imitating the hemispheres of the brain in different sounds of animals and nature cognitive and functional tasks. This (e.g., "bow-wow" for a dog), division of labor allows the brain to leading to words that mimic handle a wide range of tasks more natural sounds. efficiently, although both hemispheres - Ta-ta Hypothesis are interconnected and work together for o Suggests that language most cognitive processes. originated from gestures and Left hemisphere body movements, with early - is typically associated with time, humans using their tongue and sequencing recognition of words, mouth to mimic physical letters, numbers, speech, language, actions, eventually leading to comprehension, analysis and vocal language. calculation. Sensory stimulus, motor Necessity Theory control – right side of the body. - Suggests that language developed out of Right hemisphere necessity, driven by the practical need - More involved in spatial abilities, for communication in order to creativity, Context/perception, survive, coordinate tasks, and share recognition of faces, places, and knowledge within groups. objects. Sensory stimulus, motor - Warning Hypothesis control – left side of the body. o Proposes that early language The Natural Sound Source Invention Theory evolved as a way to issue - Language began through some sort of warnings about dangers, such human mimicry of naturally as predators, helping groups occurring sounds or movements. stay safe and alert in their Imitation Theory environment. - Proposes that language evolved as - Yo- Heave –Ho Hypothesis humans imitated sounds they heard in (Alternative Origins in Sociality or their environment, associating these Song) sounds with objects and actions. o Argues that language originated - Ding-Dong Hypothesis (Max Müller’s from rhythmic, communal attack on evolution) sounds or chants that o Suggests that language arose accompanied cooperative from an innate connection activities, such as lifting heavy between sounds and the objects or performing natural environment, where repetitive tasks. humans instinctively produced - Lying Hypothesis sounds to represent natural o Suggests that language may phenomena. have evolved to deceive or - Pooh-Pooh Hypothesis (The manipulate others, allowing Expressive or Interjectionist Theory) individuals to gain social o Argues that language began advantages by telling lies or with emotional exclamations withholding truth. or instinctive cries (like "ouch" Scientific Monogenises  - refers to the idea that all human early humans were the ancestors of all languages derive from a single contemporary human populations. ancestral language. This theory 2. Migration: The theory suggests that a group of Homo sapiens left Africa in a contrasts with polygenesis, which posits series of migration waves, beginning that languages arose independently in around 70,000 to 100,000 years ago, different groups. leading to the colonization of other parts - Mother Tongue Theory of the world. 3. Replacement Hypothesis: One version o This theory supports the concept of the Out of Africa theory posits that of monogenesis by suggesting these early African migrants completely that all languages evolved from replaced existing archaic human a, common ancestral language populations, such as Neanderthals in often referred to as the "mother Europe and Denisovans in Asia, due to tongue." Proponents believe that their greater adaptability to various as human populations migrated environments. and dispersed, this original 4. Genetic Evidence: Genetic studies have language diversified into the provided strong support for the Out of various languages we see today, Africa theory, showing that the genetic maintaining some similarities diversity of non-African populations is a across different linguistic subset of that found in African families due to their shared populations, suggesting a common origin. African origin. o Proposed by linguist Merritt 5. Fossil Evidence: Fossils of early Homo Ruhlen, this theory suggests sapiens and their ancestors discovered in that all human languages can be Africa support the theory's contention traced back to a common that Africa was the birthplace of ancestral language known as modern humans. 6. Archaeological Evidence: "Proto-World" or "Mother Archaeological findings, including tools Tongue," focusing on the and artifacts found in various parts of historical development and the world, provide evidence of early diversification of languages. human migration out of Africa that aligns with estimated migration The Out of Africa theory, also known as the timelines. recent African Origin theory, posits that 7. Variation in Modern Human Traits: anatomically modern humans (Homo sapiens) The Out of Africa theory explains originated in Africa and later dispersed to other observed variations in modern human parts of the world. According to this hypothesis, traits as a result of local adaptations to all modern humans share a common ancestry different environments following that can be traced back to a specific population migration out of Africa. of early Homo sapiens in Africa, which existed approximately 200,000 to 300,000 years ago. The Mother Tongue Theory and the Out of Africa Theory are not directly related concepts, Here are the key points of the Out of Africa but both pertain to aspects of human history and theory: evolution. 1. African Origin: According to this theory, anatomically modern humans While the Out of Africa Theory centers on first appeared in Africa around physical and genetic aspects of human evolution, 200,000 to 300,000 years ago, and these the Mother Tongue Theory explores linguistic connections among human languages. Key Figures and Theories in Linguistics impacting the understanding of language 1. 1762 – Bishop Robert Lowth: evolution. Published "A Short Introduction to 2. Ding-Dong Hypothesis: Proposed by English Grammar with Critical Max Müller as a critique of Notes," which contributed significantly evolutionary theories, suggesting a to the standardization of English natural connection between sounds and grammar. meanings. 2. 1857–1913 – Ferdinand de Saussure: 3. Mother Tongue Theory: Proposed by Known as the father of modern linguist Merritt Ruhlen, this theory linguistics, he introduced concepts of posits that all languages can be traced descriptive linguistics and structural back to a common ancestral language. linguistics. Key Psychological Theories in Language 3. 1960 – Noam Chomsky: Developed Learning theories of syntactic grammar and 1. Behaviorism: John Broadus Watson's generative grammar, revolutionizing theory that behavior is learned through the study of language structure. interaction with the environment. 4. Sage Panini: Recognized as the first 2. Classical Conditioning: Developed by known linguist, his work laid the Ivan Pavlov, it explains how learning foundations for the study of grammar in occurs through association. ancient India. 3. Operant Conditioning: Introduced by B.F. Skinner, it emphasizes the role of Historical Experiments Related to Language reinforcement in learning. 1. First Experiment (664–610 BC): 4. Cognitivism: Jean Piaget's theory Conducted by the Greek historian focusing on internal mental processes Herodotus, who recorded observations and how they influence behavior. about language development. 5. Acculturation: Explored by John 2. Second Experiment (13th Century): Schumann, this theory examines how Holy Roman Emperor Frederick II of language learning is influenced by Hohenstaufen attempted to study cultural integration. language acquisition by isolating 6. Accommodation: Developed by children, but they died before they Howard Giles, it looks at how could speak. individuals adjust their language in 3. Third Experiment (1473–1513): social interactions. James IV of Scotland reportedly found 7. Discourse Analysis: Michel Foucault's that children raised without speech approach to understanding language exposure spoke Hebrew fluently when within its social context. discovered. 8. Constructivism: Another concept by 4. 16th Century – Johannes Goropius Jean Piaget, emphasizing the active Becanus: Proposed linguistic role of learners in constructing their chauvinism, claiming that all languages knowledge. ultimately derived from Brabantic. 9. Sociocultural Theory: Lev Vygotsky's 5. 1830 – Protolanguage: Noah Webster theory, highlighting the importance of suggested that Aramaic (Chaldee) was social interaction in learning. the language spoken in Jerusalem during 10. Jerome Bruner: Believed that children the Roman occupation. construct knowledge through their 6. 1887 – Joseph Elkins: Asserted that experiences. Chinese was a protolanguage. 11. Variable Competence Model: Developed by Rod Ellis, focusing on Influential Theories and Concepts the variability of language competence 1. Theory of Natural Selection (1838): among learners. Introduced by Charles Darwin, 12. Interlanguage: A concept by Elaine Tarone that refers to the evolving linguistic system that language learners create. 13. Practical Use of Language: Henry Widdowson emphasized the importance of using language in real-life contexts. 14. Bilingualism and Cognitive Processing: Ellen Bialystok studied how bilingualism affects cognitive abilities. 15. Universal Grammar Hypothesis: Proposed by Noam Chomsky, this theory suggests that the ability to learn language is innate to humans and that all languages share a common underlying structure.  - is a theory of learning which states that: all STAGES OF LANGUAGE behaviors are learned through interaction DEVELOPMENT with the environment through a process Language Development called ―CONDITIONING‖ the process through which children acquire the ability - Behaviorism states that the language to process speech and communicate. behavior of the individual is conditioned by sequences of differential rewards in his/her Level 1 - Pre-Linguistic Stage (Birth to 12 environment. It regards language learning as Months) a behavior like other forms of human  Early Vocalizations behavior, not a mental phenomenon, learned  Babbling by a process of habit formation.  Understanding Founder of Behaviorism  Gestures - John Broadus Watson (began in 1913) Level 2 - One-Word Stage (12 – 18 Months) Theory  Holophrastic Speech - Facts, laws, and tested ideas.  Vocabulary Growth - Theories aim to explain and predict things  Understanding within a specific area of study. Level 3 - Two-Word Stage (18 – 24 Months) - Constantly evolving with new evidence and  Telegraphic Speech expanding knowledge.  Word Order Language Theory  Emergence of Grammar - Explains how language is; acquired, Level 4 - Early Sentence (2 – 3 years old) processed, and used.  Sentence Expansion - Focuses on the mechanisms governing human language abilities.  Vocabulary Explosion - Includes different schools of thought like;  Emergence of Pronouns Behaviorism, Interactionism, and Nativism. Level 5 - Later Language Development (3 – 5 years old) Key Concepts in Behaviorism  Grammatical Refinement Classical Conditioning  Emergence of Narrative Skills - Pioneered by Ivan Pavlov - Pairing neutral stimuli with responses to  Metalinguistic Awareness create associations. Level 6 - School-Age and Beyond - Ex. where a dog was conditioned to salivate  Advanced Grammar at the sound of a bell after the bell was  Vocabulary Expansion repeatedly paired with the presentation of  Language for Learning food. Factors Influencing Language Operant Conditioning Development - Developed by B.F. Skinner - Focuses on consequences of behavior Genetics (rewards or punishments) - Inherited traits can influence a child's ability - Ex. giving a student a reward, like extra to acquire and process language. recess time, for completing their homework, Cognitive Abilities reinforcing the behavior of doing homework - A child's mental capacity affects how well in the future. they understand and use language. Stimulus-Response Association Social Interaction - Approached by John B. Watson - Engaging with others provides essential - Connecting specific stimuli with opportunities for language learning and appropriate responses. development. - Stimulus - Any event or change in the Hearing environment that can be detected by an - The ability to hear sounds is crucial for organism. understanding and producing spoken - Response- The observable behavior elicited language. by a stimulus. BEHAVIORISM - Association - strengthened through repeated exposure and reinforcement. - is also known as behavioral psychology  - Ex. when a child touches a hot stove have an innate capacity for language and (stimulus) and quickly pulls their hand away that linguistic knowledge is rule-based. (response), forming an association between - Key Concept: The focus is on understanding the heat and the reflexive action. the underlying structure of language Behaviorism and Language Acquisition (syntax) and how sentences are generated - Early 20th century theories of language from deep structures. acquisition were heavily influenced by - Application: This paradigm has influenced behaviorism. theories of language acquisition, particularly - Language learning happens through the idea of Universal Grammar, which imitation, reinforcement, and practice. posits that all human languages share a common structural basis. Key Principles of Behaviorism in 3) Functionalism Language Acquisition - Focus: Functionalist approaches view Imitation language primarily as a tool for - Mimicking sounds, words, and phrases. communication, focusing on how language - Ex. when a child watches an adult wave is used in context to achieve specific goodbye and then mimics the same waving purposes. gesture. - Key Concept: Language structures are Reinforcement shaped by their communicative functions, - Correct language is rewarded, incorrect and the study of language should include language is discouraged. analysis of discourse and pragmatics. - Ex. praising a student for answering a - Application: Functionalism has led to question correctly, which encourages the approaches that prioritize communicative student to continue participating actively in competence in language teaching, such as class. Communicative Language Teaching Practice (CLT). - Repetition of language structures helps 4) Sociocultural Theory internalize skills. - Focus: This paradigm, influenced by the - Ex. a student repeatedly solving math work of Lev Vygotsky, emphasizes the problems to improve their calculation skills social nature of language learning and the and accuracy over time. importance of interaction and cultural context. Theoretical paradigms in - Key Concept: Language development is linguistics seen as a socially mediated process, where - refer to the overarching frameworks or learners construct knowledge through approaches that guide research and practice interaction with more knowledgeable in the field. others. Key theoretical paradigms in applied - Application: Sociocultural theory has linguistics: informed practices like collaborative 1) Structuralism learning, scaffolding, and the use of - Focus: This paradigm, rooted in the early authentic materials in language teaching. 20th century, emphasizes the systematic 5) Cognitive Linguistics structure of language, particularly syntax, - Focus: This paradigm views language as phonology, and morphology. deeply intertwined with human cognition, - Key Concept: Language is seen as a system focusing on how language reflects mental of signs that can be analyzed in terms of processes and conceptual structures. form and function. - Key Concept: Cognitive linguistics explores - Application: Structuralism influenced early how language is grounded in experience language teaching methods, such as the and how meaning is constructed through Audiolingual Method, which focused on metaphor, categorization, and other repetition and drills to internalize language cognitive mechanisms. patterns. - Application: This approach has influenced 2) Generative Grammar the development of teaching methods that - Focus: Developed by Noam Chomsky, this emphasize conceptual understanding, such paradigm centers on the idea that humans as the use of metaphor and imagery in vocabulary teaching. 6) Critical Applied Linguistics "bigger" or "smaller". Object permanence - Focus: This paradigm is concerned with the is another phenomenon often cited in role of language in power relations, relation to cognitive theory. During the first identity, and social justice. It critiques year of life, children seem unaware of the traditional approaches to linguistics and existence of objects they cannot see. An language education for ignoring social and object which moves out of sight ceases to political contexts. exist. By the time they reach the age of 18 - Key Concept: Language is seen as a tool that months, children have realized that objects can both reflect and perpetuate social have an existence independent of their inequalities, and applied linguistics should perception. aim to challenge and change these Jean Piaget’s 4 Cognitive dynamics. - Application: Critical applied linguistics Stages of Development informs approaches that address issues of Sensorimotor Stage – Birth to 2 years old language policy, bilingual education, and the - Infants and toddlers acquire knowledge representation of minority languages. through sensory experiences and According to Littlewood (1984), the process of manipulating objects. habit formation includes the following: Preoperational Stage - 2 to 7 years old - a) The child imitates the sounds and patterns - At the beginning of this stage, the child does which he/she learns around him/her. not use operations, so thinking is influenced - b) People recognize the child‘s attempts as by how things look or appear to them rather being similar to the adult models and than logical reasoning. reinforce (reward) the sounds by approval or Concrete Operational Stage - 7 to 11 years old some other desirable reaction. - Child can use operations (a set of logical - c) In order to obtain more of these rewards, rules) so they can conserve quantities, the child repeats the sounds and patterns so realize that people see the world in a that these become habits. different way (decentring), and demonstrate - d) In this way the child‘s verbal behavior is improvement in inclusion tasks. conditioned (‗shaped‘) until the habits Formal Operational Stage- 12 and up coincide with the adult models. - As adolescents enter this stage, they gain the ability to think abstractly, the ability to combine and classify items in a more The theory can be summed up as: LISTEN, sophisticated way, and the capacity for IMITATE, RECEIVE A REWARD, REPEAT higher-order reasoning. FOR RECALL. KEY CONCEPTS OF COGNITIVISM PIAGET’S - by Swiss Psychologist Jean Piaget - Cognitivism is received, organized, stored THEORY and retrieved by the mind. Schemas - Cognitivism is a theory of learning that - A schema describes both the mental and focuses on how mind processes physical actions involved in understanding information. and knowing. - According to Piaget, children are not passive Assimilation recipients of information; instead, they - The process of taking in new information actively explore and interact with their into our already existing schemas is known surroundings. as assimilation. - The Swiss psychologist Jean Piaget placed Accommodation the acquisition of language within the - Another part of adaptation is the ability to context of a child's mental or cognitive change existing schemas in light of new development. An excellent example of this information; this process is known as is seriation. There will be a point in a accommodation. child's intellectual development when s/he Equilibration can compare objects with respect to size.. - The process of maintaining a balance Piaget suggested that a child who had not between assimilation and accommodation. yet reached this stage would be unable to learn and use comparative adjectives like Applications of Piaget’s Theory in  Education learner with the target language (TL) group." Active Learning - Piaget‘s theory encourages hands-on Key Aspects of Acculturation activities where students actively engage Cultural Exchange with materials and experiences to construct - The process where individuals from their own understanding. different cultures share and learn each Developmentally Appropriate Practices other's customs, practices, and values. - Educators use Piaget‘s stages of cognitive Adaptation development to tailor lessons and activities - The adjustments individuals make to fit into that align with students' current cognitive a new culture, including changes in abilities. behavior, language, and social norms. Promoting Critical Thinking Psychological Impact - Piaget‘s emphasis on cognitive conflict and - The emotional and mental effects, such as problem-solving helps teachers design tasks stress or identity changes, that occur as that challenge students' thinking and individuals navigate between cultures. encourage them to explore multiple Generational Differences solutions. - Variations in how different age groups Limitations of the Cognitive Theory within the same community adapt to a new - During the first year to 18 months, culture, often with younger generations connections of the type explained above are adapting more quickly than older ones. possible to trace but, as a child continues to Theories of Acculturation develop, so it becomes harder to find clear Unidimentional Models links between language and intellect. Some - These models view acculturation as a linear studies have focused on children who have process where individuals gradually shift learned to speak fluently despite abnormal from their original culture to the new mental development. Syntax in particular culture, often at the expense of their heritage does not appear to rely on general culture. intellectual growth. Bidimentional Models Acculturation - These models propose that individuals can - Acculturation refers to the process by which simultaneously maintain their original individuals adopt, acquire, and adjust to a culture while also adopting aspects of the new cultural environment. new culture, allowing for dual cultural - The Acculturation Model by John identities. Schumann o Assimilation - A process in - It describes language learning as affected by which individuals adopt the cultural the social and psychological ―distance‖ norms of a dominant culture, often between the first and second language and losing their original cultural the cultures of the learner systems and the identity in the process. way in which the learner views and is o Separation - A strategy where viewed by the new target language group. individuals or groups choose to - Schumann‘s Acculturation Theory as maintain their original culture and presented in The Pidginization Process: A avoid interaction with the dominant Model for Second Language Acquisition culture, leading to cultural (1978) predicts that the degree of a learner‘s isolation. success in the second language (L2) o Integration - A process in which acquisition depends upon the learner‘s individuals incorporate aspects of degree of acculturation. The social and both their original culture and the psychological factors influence the dominant culture, fostering a acculturation process and second language bicultural identity. learning. According to Schumman, the o Marginalization - A situation naturalistic or untutored SLA is a by-product where individuals feel disconnected of acculturation, which he defines as "the from both their original culture and social and psychological integration of the the dominant culture, often  resulting in social exclusion and a Cohesiveness: lack of cultural identity. - Smaller and less cohesive second-language The process of acculturation in a learning (2LL) groups are more likely to engage with the target language (TL) group, natural L2 environment: creating more favorable conditions for L2 Euphoria acquisition compared to larger, more - The learners get excited over the newness of cohesive guest communities. the surroundings. Size: Culture-shock - If the size of the learner‘s group is large, it - Emerges as individuals feel the intrusion of tends to facilitate intragroup contact rather more and more culture differences into their than inter-group contact. own images of self and security. Congruence: Cultural stress and gradual recovery - The more similar the culture of the two - Some problems of acculturation are solved, groups, the more likely there will be social while others continue for some time. contact and thus language acquisition. Full-recovery Attitude: - Adaptation, assimilation, or acceptance of - The more positive the views of the 2LL the new culture. A new identity is group toward the TL group, the more developed. favorable will be the conditions for L2. Challenges and Opportunities Intended length of residence: Identity Conflicts - The longer L2 learners plan to remain in the - Potential conflicts arising from rapid L2 environment, the more likely it is that cultural changes. they will feel the necessity of learning the Cultural Homogenization TL. - Risks of losing traditional practices. How social distance hampers SLA is also seen Personal Growth from the famous research on Alberto, on which - Opportunities for personal development and Schumman‘s theory is based. social integration. Psychological distance The eight components of The four affective variables included in social distance Schumann's acculturation model are Social dominance. Language Shock: The discomfort learners - Social dominance affects language feel when speaking a new language. acquisition, as greater equality between the Culture Shock: The disorientation host and guest cultures leads to more social experienced during extended stays in a new culture. contact and improved target language Ego Permeability: The learner's learning, while dominance or subordination willingness to accept a new identity within a speech hinders this process. community. Integration pattern or Assimilation, Motivation: The learner's desire to acquire preservation, and adaptation: the second language (L2). Among these, motivation - The optimal conditions for second language is most relevant to this research, as high levels of (L2) acquisition occur when the second- both integrative and instrumental motivation language learning (2LL) group seeks to positively influence second language acquisition. assimilate into the target language (TL) group, while adaptation for interaction is the Schumann argues that acculturation, or next best condition, and separation from the integrating into the target linguistic community, TL group leads to the least favorable is not a direct cause of second language outcomes for L2 learning. acquisition (SLA) but rather a starting point in a Enclosure: chain of factors leading to natural SLA; he - The likelihood of successful second posits that while acculturation connects learners language (L2) acquisition increases when with target language (TL) speakers, verbal second-language learning (2LL) groups share social institutions, such as schools and interaction with those speakers facilitates workplaces, with the target language (TL) appropriate input, which directly influences group. language acquisition.  2 TYPES OF ACCOMODATION THEORY ACCOMMODATION - By Howard Giles Convergence - 1973 "Speech Accomodation Theory" - When individuals adjust their speech - We change conscious or unconsciously our patterns and communication styles to way of communicating towards different become more similar to those of their people. conversation partners, often to foster - Accommodations Theory suggests that connection and facilitate understanding. during social interaction, we used Divergence accommodation bring us closer together or - When individuals emphasize their speech further apart from each other. patterns and communication styles to - Accommodation, also known as the highlight differences from their conversation accommodative process, refers to how partners, often to maintain distinctiveness or speakers manipulate language to preserve assert their identity. their integrity, distance, or identity by unconsciously adjusting their language DISCOURSE THEORY choice, tone, or speech rate to either  Michel Foucault converge with or diverge from others' - The way we speak and Write is shaped by behavior. In linguistics, accommodation the structures of power in our society. involves participants adjusting their accent, Language learning evolves communication diction, or other language aspects based on and matrix of Linguistic knowledge the speech style of their conversation - Discourse theory states that all the relevant partner. It typically manifests as text around a message should be considered convergence, where a speaker adopts a to understand it clearly and universally, language variety that aligns with the other instead of viewing it as a stand-alone speaker‘s style, but it can also occur as sentence. Discourse theory has received divergence, where a speaker uses a different prominence in social sciences. style to signal social distance or disapproval. Conversation or Text THE 4 ASSUMPTIONS OF - This refers to individual instances of communication, whether spoken or written, COMMUNICATION that can be analyzed for meaning and ACCOMMODATION THEORY structure. Similarities and differences Collection of Text or Conversation - Communication accommodation theory - This involves analyzing multiple instances assumes that individuals adjust their of discourse to identify patterns, themes, and communication styles based on perceived variations across different contexts or similarities and differences with their participants. conversation partners. Codes and languages Perception and Evaluation - Discourse theory examines the various - The theory posits that individuals‘ codes (linguistic, cultural, social) that shape perceptions of each other's communication communication and the languages used can influence their evaluations and within specific discourse communities. responses, impacting the interaction. Exposure to language Social status and Power - This concept highlights the importance of - The theory considers how social status and individuals‘ encounters with language in power dynamics between individuals affect different contexts, which influences their their accommodation behaviors during understanding and use of discourse. communication. Interaction Degrees of accommodation - Discourse theory emphasizes the role of - It recognizes that the extent of social interaction in shaping language use, accommodation can vary, with individuals meaning-making, and the dynamics of choosing to converge (align their communication among individuals. communication) or diverge (maintain their distinct style) depending on the context and Levels Of Language relationship. Phonology - Word Sounds Morphology - Word Parts and Meaning - This pertains to understanding the social Semantics - Word Meaning and Use context of language use, including Syntax - Complete Sentences and Sentence appropriate language choices based on Structure factors like audience, setting, and cultural norms. Discourse - Multiple Sentences (Paragraph, Stories, Chapters, Books) Strategic Competence - This involves the ability to employ strategies DISCOURSE ANALYSIS to overcome communication challenges, Analysis of Function Language such as using paraphrasing, gestures, or - This aspect focuses on how language serves asking for clarification when faced with specific purposes within communication, difficulties. including the social and contextual functions Discourse Competence that influence meaning. - This refers to the ability to understand and Language is More Than Just Sentence Level produce coherent and cohesive texts or - Discourse analysis examines language conversations, effectively organizing ideas beyond individual sentences, considering and connecting them logically within spoken how meaning is constructed across larger or written discourse. units of text or conversation. Main Principle of Discourse Theory Square Bits of Language Rules of Grammar are Acquired in Natural - This term refers to the discrete elements of Order language (e.g., phrases, words, or - Language learners typically acquire utterances) that can be analyzed to grammatical rules in a predictable sequence, understand their roles and relationships reflecting the natural progression of within discourse. language development. Modes of Discourse Non-native and Native Speaker Exposition - There are distinctions between native - This mode aims to explain, inform, or speakers, who have an innate command of clarify a topic through factual details and their language, and non-native speakers, logical organization, often found in essays who learn the language later and may and instructional texts. exhibit different proficiency levels. Narration The Strategies and Means Used in Discourse - This mode tells a story or recounts events, - This involves understanding the various using a structured plot to engage the tactics and tools that learners use to navigate audience and convey experiences, typically and participate effectively in conversations seen in fiction and personal anecdotes. or written texts. Description The Learners Learn the Grammar of the L2 - This mode focuses on detailing sensory in the Same Order characteristics of a subject, painting a vivid - Similar to first language acquisition, learners picture for the audience through descriptive of a second language (L2) generally follow a language and imagery. comparable sequence in mastering Argument/Persuasion grammatical structures. - This mode seeks to convince or persuade the The Learner is Helped to Construct audience of a particular viewpoint or action, Sentences Vertically using logical reasoning, evidence, and - This approach focuses on guiding learners to emotional appeals. build sentences by layering grammatical Communicative Competence elements, thereby enhancing their - refers to the ability to use language understanding of sentence structure. effectively. SLA ( Second Language Grammatical Competence Acquisition) - This involves knowledge of the rules of Written, Visual, and Oral Text syntax, morphology, phonology, and - SLA involves learning through various vocabulary, allowing speakers to form forms of communication, including reading grammatically correct sentences. and writing texts, visual aids, and spoken Sociolinguistic Competence interactions. Instructional Dialogue 1. Knowledge is constructed. - Engaging in dialogue that facilitates - Learners build their understanding and learning, where teachers and learners knowledge based on their experiences and interact to promote understanding and interactions with the world. language development. 2. People learn to learn, as they learn. Ideas and Concepts Will Be Mutually - Learners develop strategies for learning and Understood problem-solving as they engage in the - Effective SLA relies on the ability of learning process. learners and instructors to share and 3. Learning in an active process. comprehend ideas and concepts, fostering - Learning involves active participation, collaborative learning and communication. where learners engage with material, ask questions, and seek solutions rather than CONSTRUCTIVISM & passively receiving information. SOCIOCULTURAL THEORY 4. Learning is a social activity. JEAN PIAGET (1896-1980) - Interaction with others, such as peers and - Jean Piaget is considered the father of the teachers, plays a crucial role in the learning constructivist view of learning. His theory process, facilitating the exchange of ideas suggests that humans create knowledge and perspectives. through the interaction between their 5. Learning is contextual. experiences and ideas, emphasizing the - Knowledge is influenced by the context in active role of learners in constructing their which it is learned, meaning that learning is understanding of the world. tied to specific situations and environments. LEV VYGOTSKY (1896–1934) 6. Knowledge is personal. - Known as the father of Sociocultural - Each learner has a unique perspective and Theory. His theory highlights the understanding, making knowledge importance of cultural context and tools subjective and influenced by individual (like language) in shaping how people learn. experiences. JEROME BRUNER (1915-2016) 7. Learning exists in the mind - Jerome Bruner believed that children - The process of learning occurs internally construct knowledge and meaning through within the learner's cognitive framework, active experience with the world around emphasizing mental models and personal them. interpretations. CONSTRUCTIVISM 8. Motivation is key to learning - A learner‘s motivation significantly impacts - Construct knowledge rather than their engagement and success in the learning passively taking information. Based on an process, driving their desire to acquire new idea that people actively construct their own knowledge and skills. knowledge. Use their previous knowledge as a foundation and build on it with new things SOCIOCULTURAL that they learn. THEORY - Constructivist theory and sociocultural - Vygotsky‘s theory that learning is shaped by theory share a focus on how individuals social interaction, culture, and language. build knowledge, but they differ in their Knowledge is co-constructed through emphasis on the sources and processes of collaboration with others. learning. - The interactionist approach (sociocultural Constructivism, or individual constructivism theory) combines ideas from sociology and - emphasizes individuals' personal biology to explain how language is experiences in constructing knowledge. developed. Social constructivism KEY COMPONENTS OF - emphasizes how social interactions impact learners' construction of knowledge. VYGOTSKY’S ELEMENTS AND PRINCIPLES SOCIOCULTURAL THEORY OF Zone of Proximal Development (ZPD): - The gap between what a learner CONSTRUCTIVISM can do alone and with help.  - The Zone of Proximal Development is the proficiency, with its evolution depending on primary activity space in which learning the formality of the situation and the takes place. learner's familiarity with the topic. - Refers to the range of abilities an individual - Draws and extends the works of: can perform with the guidance of an expert, o Elaine Tarone (1982;1983), but cannot yet perform on their own. Tarone's research focused on the - There are three distinct categories concept of "interlanguage" and the o Task a Learner Cannot Accomplish variability of learner language, With Assistance which influenced Ellis's model. o Tasks a Learner Can Accomplish o Henry Widdowson (1979; 1984): With Assistance Widdowson contributed insights on o Tasks a Learner Can Accomplish the practical use of language and Without Assistance the importance of context in Scaffolding: understanding language - Temporary support to help learners perform competence. tasks in their ZPD. o Ellen Bialystok (1983): Bialystok's More Knowledgeable Other (MKO): work on bilingualism and cognitive - Someone with more experience or processing informed the model‘s knowledge guiding the learner. perspective on how learners Private Speech: navigate between languages and - Self-talk that helps children think and solve develop their competence. problems, later becoming internalized. Sociolinguistic approach to SLA - Language is learned in a reflection way it is Classroom Use: used. - Collaborative learning and guided activities influenced by Vygotsky‘s ideas. Focusing on interaction - Exposure to a target language is necessary Tenets of Sociocultural for learning. Theory CATEGORIES OF VARIABLE Learning precedes development. (This is contrary to Piaget‘s belief that development precedes learning COMPETENCE MODEL and that certain learning cannot occur until requisite PRODUCT OF LANGUAGE USE biological development occurs. - This refers to what the learner does with the language. - Discourse Continuum The "More Knowledgeable Other‖ o Unplanned Discourse - It is the The "more knowledgeable other" is someone discourse that lacks forethought who has a higher level of knowledge than the and preparation. It is associated learner and is able to provide them with with spontaneous communication. instruction during their learning process. o Planned Discourse - It is the discourse that thought out prior to VARIABLE COMPETENCE expression. It requires opportunity MODEL to work out content and expression. - Proposed by Rod Ellis (1984) PROCESS OF LANGUAGE USE - The Variable Competence Model of - This is to be understood in terms of the language acquisition, proposed by Rod Ellis distinction between linguistic knowledge and further developed by others, explains (rules) and the ability to make use of this how learners progress in their knowledge (procedures). interlanguage—the transitional state - Widdowson (1984) emphasized that between their native language (L1) and the effective language use relies not only on target language (L2). This model posits that knowing the rules but also on the ability to learners do not move linearly from L1 to L2; apply them contextually and appropriately in instead, they develop a dynamic various communicative situations. interlanguage that incorporates elements PREMISE OF THE MODEL from both languages, influenced by factors a) VARIABLE such as context, task demands, and language  - A language user possess a myriad of understanding of the basic structure of different rules for different uses of language. language, shared across all languages. b) VARIABLE APPLICATION - UG emphasizes that language acquisition is - A language user analyze different biologically driven, not solely learned from perspective of what they are saying prior the environment. and during speech. - The is a theory proposed by , which suggests that all human beings are born with an THE L2 KNOWLEDGE STORE innate set of grammatical principles or a - The L2 Knowledge Store is the mental "blueprint" for language. This built-in repository of vocabulary, grammar, system is believed to guide the process of pronunciation, and pragmatic rules that learning any language. In the context of , the second language learners accumulate and explores how this innate linguistic refine through exposure and practice in the knowledge influences the way individuals target language. learn a second language (L2). VARIABILITY OF THE KEY CONCEPTS OF U.G. LEARNER’S RULE SYSTEM HYPOTHESIS Automatic INNATE CONSTRAINTS - This is the knowledge that can be retrieved - Innate constraints limit the range of easily and quickly. It concerns the relative grammatical rules that a language can have, access that the learner has to L2 knowledge. making language acquisition more efficient. Analytic UNIVERSAL PROPERTIES - It concerns to the extent to which the learner - It says that all human languages have nouns possess a prepositional mental and verbs, which are fundamental representation. The structure of the components of sentence structure. knowledge and its relationship to others. PRINCIPLES & PARAMETERS (P&P) TYPES OF PROCEDURES FOR MODEL ACTUALIZING KNOWLEDGE - Explains that all human languages share Primary Processes common grammatical principles, which are - These processes are responsible for innate. engaging in unplanned discourse. It draws knowledge that is relatively unanalyzed and automatic. Secondary Processes - These processes come to play in planned discourse. It draws on knowledge towards the analyzed end of continuum. TWO PROCESSES FOR ACTUALIZING KNOWLEDGE Discourse Process - It is to simplify the semantic structure of a message by omitting meaning elements that are communicately redundant or that can be realized by a non-verbal device. Cognitive Process - It is to construct an underlying conceptual structure of a message with the frame of reference and eliminate redundant elements for which no lexical item is available. UNIVERSAL GRAMMAR HYPOTHESIS - is a theory proposed by Noam Chomsky that suggests all humans have an innate