Cascabel - Module-1.pdf

Module 1 Pharmaceutical Chemistry Inorganic and Organic Pharmaceutical and Medicinal Chemistry Kathreen Mae D. Cascabel BSPharmacy  General Chemistry Chemistry – study of matter Matter – anything that occupies space and has mass...

Module 1 Pharmaceutical Chemistry Inorganic and Organic Pharmaceutical and Medicinal Chemistry Kathreen Mae D. Cascabel BSPharmacy  General Chemistry Chemistry – study of matter Matter – anything that occupies space and has mass UNITS OF MEASUREMENT 1. Composition 2. Structure Length Meter (m) 3. Changes that matter undergoes Mass Kilogram (kg) Time Seconds (sec) 4. Energy involved in such changes or interactions Temperature Kelvin (K) Mass – refers to the amount of matter present in the material Weight = Mass x Pull of gravity Classification of Matter  Element - simplest form of matter, 1 kind of material or atom  Compound - substances composed of two or more elements united chemically in definite proportion  Mixture - composed of 2 or more substances that are not chemically combined Plasma  Colorless fluid part of blood, lymph, or milk in which corpuscles or fat globules are suspended Serum  Amber- colored protein-rich liquid that separates out when blood coagulates  Used to provide immunity  Diagnostic agent Classification of Mixture A. According to the Nature of Particles a. Homogenous b. Heterogenous B. According to the Size of Particles a. Solution - uniform mixture (homogenous), composed of solute and solvent where solute is soluble b. Suspension - Coarse Mixture, finely divided solid materials distributed in a liquid where solid is insol. c. Colloid - particles of solute not broken down to the size of the molecules but are small enough to remain suspended and evenly dispersed throughout the medium Process of Separating Components of Mixtures 1. Decantation - difference in specific gravity or density 2. Distillation - evaporation and then condensation 3. Evaporation 4. Magnetic Separation 5. Filtration 6. Sorting 7. Centrifugation - speeding up of settling process of a precipitate 8. Fractional Crystallization - lowering of temp so that the more insoluble comp crystallizes out first 9. Chromatography - difference in solvent affinity Properties of Matter 1. Intrinsic/Intensive - INDEPENDENT of mass or amount (density, specific gravity, melting point) 2. Extrinsic/Extensive - DEPENDENT on mass (weight, volume, pressure, heat content) Changes that matter undergoes 1. Physical Change - change in phase 2. Chemical Change - change in both intrinsic and extrinsic properties Evidences of Chemical Change  Evolution of gas  Formation of precipitate  Emission of light  Generation of electricity  Production of mechanical energy  Absorption/liberation of heat Types of Chemical Reactions A. Direct Union Fe + S  FeS (all sulfides are BLACK) B. Decomposition/Analysis Na2CO3  Na2O + CO2 C. Single Replacement Na + HCl  NaCl + H2 D. Double Displacement NaCl + AgNO3  NaNO3 + AgCl Processes Involved in Chemical Change 1. Oxidation +𝑂 2. Reduction −𝑂 𝑜𝑟 + 𝐻 3. Neutralization 𝑎𝑐𝑖𝑑 + 𝑏𝑎𝑠𝑒  𝑠𝑎𝑙𝑡 + 𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟 4. Hydrolysis 𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟 + 𝑠𝑎𝑙𝑡  𝑎𝑐𝑖𝑑 + 𝑏𝑎𝑠𝑒 5. Saponification 𝑎𝑙𝑘𝑎𝑙𝑖 + 𝑓𝑎𝑡𝑠  𝑠𝑜𝑎𝑝 + 𝑔𝑙𝑦𝑐𝑒𝑟𝑜𝑙 6. Fermentation 𝑜𝑟𝑔𝑎𝑛𝑖𝑐 𝑠𝑢𝑏𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒𝑠 + 𝑚𝑖𝑐𝑟𝑜𝑏𝑒𝑠  𝑎𝑙𝑐𝑜𝑕𝑜𝑙 3. Nuclear Change – ∆ in structure, properties, composition of the nucleus  in the transmutation of the element  Nuclear Fission - splitting of a heavy atom  Nuclear Fusion - union of 2 light atoms to form a bigger molecule Oxidation state computations: +1 +2 +3 -1 1. KMnO4 H Be Al F K = +1 (1) = +1 Li Mg Cl Mn = x Na Ca Br O4 = -2 (4) = -8 K Sr -2 I 1+x–8=0 Rb Ba O At X = +7 Cs Ra S Fr 2. Na2Cr2O7 Na2 = +1 (2) = +2 Cr2 = x (2) = 2x O7 = -2 (7) = -14 +2 + 2x – 14 = 0 2x = 14 – 2 2x = 12 X = +6 3. AsO3-3 As = x O4 = -2 (4) X – 8 = -3 X=8–3 X = +5 ATOMIC STRUCTURE Protons = Electrons = Atomic number Neutrons = Mass number – Atomic number Mass no. = Protons + Neutrons Electrons = Protons - Charge Similarities Difference Isotopes Element Mass number Isotones Neutrons Protons Isobars Mass number Element Isomers Molecule Structure ION P =6 Cation = 12 +1 E = P - Charge + C = 6 – (+1) 6 N = Mass no. – P =5 = 12-6 =6 Anion = 12 -1 E = P -Charge E = P – charge - C = 6 – (-1) 6 =6–0 =7 =6 Democritus Matter is made up of small indivisible particles | Coined “atomos” John Dalton “Billiard Ball Model” – atom is a hard indestructible sphere Dalton’s Atomic Theory  Matter is made up of atoms  All atoms of a given element are alike  Atoms enter into a combination with other atoms to form compounds but remain unchanged during ordinary chemical rxn Atom can combine into simple numerical ratios Disproved: subatomic particles J.J Thompson “Raisin Bread” model Rutherford Proton; Gold Film Experiment: Atom is mostly an empty space (99% passed) Niel Bohr Model Planetary model Erwin Schrodinger Quantum Mechanic Model; “Electron Cloud” – electrons move in 3D structure (Orbitals) James Chadwick Neutron ION – charged atom  Atomic Number - number of protons  Mass number - protons + neutrons ALLOTROPISM  Allotrope – atoms of different elements can link together in different ways to form substances with diff properties  Allotropes of Carbon : Diamond and Graphite  Allotropes of Oxygen o *O+ nascent o O2 molecular o O3 ozone Orbitals – region in space where the probability of finding an electron is greatest QUANTUM NUMBERS Symbol Values Function Principal Quantum Number n 1, 2, 3 Determine the size of the  Main energy level (+ integer) particle Azimuthal or Angular l 0 to (n-1) Subshell or sublevel, Momentum determines the shape (s, p, d, f) Magnetic Quantum Number m or ml -l to +l Orbitals, determine the orientation Spin Quantum Number s or ms - ½ or + ½ Direction of the spin or rotation Law of Conservation of Mass - The total mass of all products of a chemical reaction is equal to the total mass of all reactants of that reaction Law of Definite Proportions/Proust’s Law - Inorganic compounds - A chemical compound always contains exactly the same proportion of elements by mass Law of Multiple Proportion - Organic compounds - When chemical elements combine, they do so in a ratio of small whole numbers GENERAL PRINCIPLES IN ELECTRON CONFIGURATION Pauli’s Exclusion Principle – No two electrons can have the same set of 4 quantum numbers Each atomic orbital can only accommodate 2 electrons (Ex: 1s2) Heisenberg’s Uncertainty Principle – Impossible to determine simultaneously the e- momentum & position Aufbau Building Up Principle – Lower energy levels are filled up first Hund’s Rule of Maximun Multiplicity – Orbitals are filled up singly before pairing up PERIODIC TABLE OF ELEMENTS Antoine-Laurent Lavoisier - Hydrogen, First true periodic table Johann Dobereiner - Triads (Li, Na, K | Ba, Ca, Sr | S, Se, Te | Cl, Br, I) Newlands - Octaves Meyer and Mendeleev - Physical and chemical properties are periodic functions of their atomic weights Henry Mosley - Elements are arranged based on atomic numbers (present) Family A  Representative Elements  Occupy: o S block  Group IA – Alkali Metals  Group IIA – Alkaline Earth o P Block  Group IIIA to VIIIA Family B  Transition elements  Occupy: o D block: Transition Metals o F block: Lanthanide or Lanthanoid series – Rare Earth Metals PERIODIC TRENDS (noble gases not included) Atomic Radius (½ the distance bet 2 nuclei) Ionization potential (energy to remove an e-) Metallic Property Electron affinity (energy when e- is added) Electronegativity (ability to attract e-) *Arrows indicate increasing values Kinematic Molecular Theory – explains phases of matter based on movement (exclu. direction) of molecules/ions/atoms  SOLID - definite shape and size, definite volume  LIQUID - follows the shape of container, definite volume  GAS - indefinite shape and volume SOLUTIONS – homogenous mixture single phase system of two of more substances  Saturated Solution - maximum amount of solute  Unsaturated Solution - less solute  Supersaturated Solution - more solute than the solvent can dissolve Factors Affecting Solubility 1. Nature of Solute and Solvent  “Like dissolves like” Solubility – maximum amount of solute expressed in grams that can be dissolved in 100 g of water Miscibility – ability of one substance to mix with another substance 2. Temperature  ↑ temperature = ↓ solubility of a gas Exothermic – solubility decreases with increase in temp (Mg citrate) Endothermic – solubility increases with increase in temp 3. Pressure ( for gases only) Henry’s Law – the solubility of a gas increases as pressure increases 4. Particle Size/Surface Area  Decreased particle size = Increased surface area = Increased solubility 5. Presence of Salts  Salting Out – presence of salt decreases solubility  Salting In – presence of salt increases solubility Methods of Expressing Concentration of Solutions Percent Solution Mole fraction (x) = moles of the substance  % by mass total moles of solution  % by volume  % mass/volume Molarity (M) – moles of solute per L of solution  ppm (parts per million) Molality (m) – moles of solute per kg of solvent  proof Normality (N) – no. of equivalents of solute per L of Mole (n) = grams/MW solution FORCES OF ATTRACTION INTRAMOLECULAR FORCES – within molecules 1. Ionic Bond - transfer 2. Covalent Bond - sharing a. Polar (unequal) b. Nonpolar (equal) INTERMOLECULAR FORCES – between molecules; physical attraction 1. Van der Waals a. Keesom (Dipole-dipole) o Orientation/Alignment effect o 1-7 kcal/mole b. Debye (Dipole-Induced Dipole) o Induction o 1-3 kcal/mole c. London Dispersion (Induced dipole-Induced dipole) o Very close proximity  internal vibration will cause dispersion of charges o 0.5-1 kcal/mole 2. Ion-Dipole - charged ion + polar molecule (salt & water) 3. Ion-Induced Dipole - charged ion + nonpolar molecule (I2 + KI) 4. Hydrogen Bond - between H and electronegative atom (F, O, N, Cl, S) ; can be intramolecular (A=T) Physical Properties of Systems 1. Additive Property - depends on sum | molecular weight 2. Constitutive Property - type and arrangement | optical rotation, refractive index 3. Colligative Property - number of solute | VPL, BPE, FPD, OP Density = mass per unit volume (M/V) Specific gravity = density of sample/density of standard Specific volume = reciprocal of specific gravity, opposite of density COLLIGATIVE PROPERTIES – property of solution depend on the number of solute particles dissolved in a solvent Colligative Property Notes Formula Vapor Pressure Lowering  The addition of a non-volatile solute lowers Raoult’s Law – lowering of a vapor the VP of a liquid pressure of a solvent is equal to the  A liquid in a closed container will establish product of the mole fraction of the an equilibrium with its vapor solute and vapor pressure of the solvent  When equilibrium is reached, vapor exerts a pressure (vapor pressure) – 𝜟𝑷 = 𝑷° 𝒙 𝒎𝒐𝒍𝒆 𝒇𝒓𝒂𝒄𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏 VOLATILE – exhibits VP NONVOLATILE – no measurable VP Boiling Point Elevation BP – temp at which liquid pressure is equal to ∆𝑇𝑏 = 𝐾𝑏 𝑚 atmospheric pressure (1 atm = 760 mmHg) 𝟏𝟎𝟎𝟎 𝒘𝟐 ∆𝑻𝒃 = 𝑲𝒃 The boiling point of a solution containing a non- 𝒘𝟏 𝑴𝑾𝟐 volatile solute would be higher than the pure solvent because the solute would lower the Kb = ebullioscopic/molal BPE constant vapour pressure of the solvent (0.52 °C/m) m = molality w1 = weight of solvent w2 = weight of solute MW2 = molecular wt of solute Freezing Point Depression FP – temp at which the solid and liquid phases ∆𝑇𝑓 = 𝐾𝑓 𝑚 are in equilibrium under an external pressure 𝟏𝟎𝟎𝟎 𝒘𝟐 ∆𝑻𝒇 = 𝑲𝒇 In general, solutions have a lower freezing point 𝒘𝟏 𝑴𝑾𝟐 than the pure solvent Kf = cryoscopic/FPD constant Applications: (Kf = 1.86°C/m)  Salt is spread on roads to melt ice  Ethylene glycol as “anti-freeze” Osmotic Pressure Osmosis – movement of water across a semipermeable membrane from low to high 𝝅𝑽 = 𝒏𝑹𝑻 𝑜𝑟 𝝅 = 𝑴𝑹𝑻 concentration π = osmotic pressure in atm This is the pressure required to offset the V = volume in L movement of solvent thru a s. membrane n = no of moles of solute 𝐿.𝑎𝑡𝑚 Also defined as the pressure required to prevent R = gas constant (0.08205 𝑚𝑜𝑙.𝐾) osmosis in solutions. T = absolute temperature Hypertonic – causes crenation Hypotonic – causes swelling/lysis Isotonic – 0.9% (w/v) NaCl  GAS LAW FORMULA CONSTANT 𝟏 Boyle's/Mariotte 𝑷₁𝑽₁ = 𝑷₂𝑽₂ 𝑜𝑟 𝑷 ∝𝑽 Temperature 𝑽₁ 𝑽₂ Charles' = 𝑜𝑟 𝑽∝𝑻 Pressure 𝑻₁ 𝑻₂ 𝑷₁ 𝑷₂ Gay-Lussac's = 𝑜𝑟 𝑷∝𝑻 Volume 𝑻₁ 𝑻₂ 𝑷₁𝑽₁ 𝑷₂𝑽₂ Combined = 𝑻₁ 𝑻₂ 𝐿.𝑎𝑡𝑚 R = 0.08206 𝑚𝑜𝑙.𝐾 At STP: Ideal 𝑷𝑽 = 𝒏𝑹𝑻 T = 273.15 K P = 1 atm V = 22.4 L 𝒂𝒏𝟐 (𝑷 + ) (𝑽 − 𝒏𝒃) = 𝒏𝑹𝑻 𝒗𝟐 Real/Van der Waals an2 = internal pressure per mole nb = incompressibility 𝑷𝒔𝒐𝒍𝒖𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏 = 𝑿𝒔𝒐𝒍𝒗𝒆𝒏𝒕 𝑷𝒔𝒐𝒍𝒗𝒆𝒏𝒕 Rauolt’s Temperature X = mole fraction Henry’s Law of Gas 𝑷𝒓𝒆𝒔𝒔𝒖𝒓𝒆 ∝ 𝑺𝒐𝒍𝒖𝒃𝒊𝒍𝒊𝒕𝒚 Temperature Solubility Total pressure in a mixture is equal to the sum of Dalton’s Law of Partial the partial pressures of each gas Pressures 𝑃𝑡 = 𝑃1 + 𝑃2 + 𝑃3 … …. Volume of gas at STP is directly proportional to the Avogadro’s number of moles k = 6.022 X 1023 𝑽₁ 𝑽₂ 𝑽 = 𝑜𝑟 𝑽 ∝ 𝒏 𝑜𝑟 =𝒌 𝒏₁ 𝒏₂ 𝒏 Rate of diffusion and speed gas are inversely proportional to the square root of their density Graham’s 1 𝑅𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑑𝑖𝑓𝑓𝑢𝑠𝑖𝑜𝑛 ∝ √𝑑𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦 Diffusion – gradual mixing of molecules of one gas with molecules of another gas by virtue of kinetic properties Effusion – passage of a gas under pressure through a small opening ACIDS AND BASES Electrolytes – conductors  Weak Electrolytes: incomplete dissolution  Strong Electrolytes: strong acids and bases, complete dissolution Non-Electrolytes – will not dissociate, will not conduct electricity Acid-Base Theories Theory Acid Base + + - Arrhenius Yields H or H3O OH Bronsted-Lowry Theory Proton donor Proton acceptor - Lewis Theory E acceptor E- donor Pearson’s HSAB Hard acids are e- acceptor with high positive charges and relatively small sizes while soft acids have positive charges and relatively small ACIDS BASES  Sour taste  Bitter taste  Litmus: blue to red  Litmus: red to blue  + metals  H gas  Feel slippery  + carbonate and bicarbonate  CO2  Phenolphthalein: Pink to violet  Phenolphthalein: colorless  Methyl orange: Yellow  Methyl orange: pink/red  NaOH, KOH, Ca(OH)2  HCl, HClO3, HClO4, HBr, HI, HNO3, H2SO4, H3PO4 NEUTRALIZATION – Acid + Base  Salt and Water Titration – progressive addition of a sol’n of known concentration to a substance of unknown conc Indicator – Substance that changes color at the end point Neutralization point (Stoichiometric point/Equivalence Point/Theoretical Point) – point when equal amounts of acid and base have reacted; non-observable Endpoint – Experimental approximate of neutralization point; observable pH – the negative logarithm of the H+ concentration 𝒑𝑯 = −𝒍𝒐𝒈 [𝑯+] Sorensen’s pH scale For weak acids 𝐻𝐴 + 𝐻2 𝑂 ↔ 𝐻3 𝑂+ + 𝐴− Neutral = 7 For weak bases 𝐵 + 𝐻2 𝑂 ↔ 𝑂𝐻 − + 𝐵𝐻 + Acidic < 7 Water Ionization 𝐻2 𝑂 + 𝐻2 𝑂 ↔ 𝐻3 𝑂+ + 𝑂𝐻 − Basic > 7 pH Calculations Strong Acids 𝒑𝑯 = −𝒍𝒐𝒈 [𝑯+] Strong Bases 𝑝𝐻 = −𝑙𝑜𝑔 [𝑂𝐻 −] or 𝒑𝑯 = 𝟏𝟒 − (−𝒍𝒐𝒈 [𝑶𝑯− ]) 1 Weak Acids 𝑝𝐻 = 2 𝑝𝐾𝑎 − 𝑙𝑜𝑔𝐶𝑎 𝑏𝑎𝑠𝑒 1 Weak Bases 𝑝𝐻 = 𝑝𝐾𝑤 − 𝑝𝐾𝑏 + 𝑙𝑜𝑔 𝑠𝑎𝑙𝑡 or 𝑝𝐻 = 𝑝𝐾𝑤 − 2 (𝑝𝐾𝑏 − 𝑙𝑜𝑔𝐶𝑏) BUFFERS  Solutions that have the property of resisting changes in pH when acids or bases are added to them  This property results from the presence of a buffer pair which consists of either: - Weak acid and some salt of a weak acid or its conjugate base - Weak base and some salt of a weak base or its conjugate acid Henderson-Hasselbach Equation 𝑠𝑎𝑙𝑡 Weak acids 𝑝𝐻 = 𝑝𝐾𝑎 + 𝑙𝑜𝑔 𝑎𝑐𝑖𝑑 𝑏𝑎𝑠𝑒 Weak bases 𝑝𝐻 = 𝑝𝐾𝑏 + 𝑙𝑜𝑔 𝑠𝑎𝑙𝑡 Buffer Capacity (Buffer action/Buffer efficiency/Buffer index/Buffer value)  Ability of a buffer solution to resist changes in pH Approximate formula [𝒔𝒂𝒍𝒕]+[𝒃𝒂𝒔𝒆] 𝒑𝑯 = 𝒑𝑲𝒂 + 𝒍𝒐𝒈 [𝒂𝒄𝒊𝒅]−[𝒃𝒂𝒔𝒆] Exact formula/Koppel-Spiro Van Slyke’s Equation 𝑲𝒂 [𝑯𝟑 𝑶+] 𝜷 = 𝟐. 𝟑𝑪 (𝑲 + 𝟐 𝒂 +[𝑯𝟑 𝑶 ]) Where C = total buffer concentration, that is, the sum of the molar concentrations of the acid and the salt. Maximum Buffer Capacity - occurs when pH = pKa - 𝜷𝒎𝒂𝒙 = 𝟎. 𝟓𝟕𝟔 𝑪 THERMOCHEMISTRY Heat (q) - an energy transfer due to temperature difference Work (w) - form of energy transfer between a system and its surroundings in the form of compression or expansion of gas Internal Energy (U) - total energy attributed to the particles of matter and their interactions within a system, composed of thermal energy and chemical energy Hesse’s Law – the total energy is the sum of all Enthalpy (H) - energy of a reaction energies in all steps of a reaction Entropy (S) - degree of disorderliness Heat Capacity (c) - amount of heat required to raise the temperature of an object or substance by 1 degree Specific Heat - amount of heat required to raise the temperature of an object per gram Chemical Reactions 1. Endothermic Process - reaction wherein heat is absorbed by the system, indicated by a (+) change in enthalpy 2. Exothermic Process - reaction wherein heat is released by the system, indicated by a (-) change in enthalpy Spontaneous Non-Spontaneous Enthalpy -H +H Entropy +S -S Reaction Exothermic Endothermic Le Chatelier’s Principle  When a stress is applied to a system in equilibrium, the equilibrium shifts to relieve the stress Laws of Thermodynamics 1. Law of Conservation of Energy, states that energy cannot be created or destroyed; it can only be redistributed or changed from one form to another. 2. The second law of thermodynamics says that the entropy of any isolated system not in thermal equilibrium almost always increases. 3. The third law of thermodynamics states that the entropy of a system approaches a constant value as the temperature approaches zero. GROUP IA: ALKALI METALS  Most reactive metals  Valence = 1 A. HYDROGEN (inflammable air) o Lightest and most reactive element o Isotopes: a. Protium - most abundant b. Deuterium - heavy hydrogen (D2O) c. Tritium - radioactive Hardness of water Temporary – Ca or Mg bicarbonates (removed by boiling/ addition of OH source) Permanent – sulfates, chlorides, or hydroxides of Ca or Mg Water - official solutions, tinctures and extracts Purified Water - extemporaneous compounding test reagents Water for Injection - solvent for parenterals; must pass pyrogen test SWFI - extemporaneous compounding of parenterals BWFI - has one or more antimicrobial agents (e.g. Benzyl alcohol) small volumes of IM injection, not for IV administration B. LITHIUM (earth) o Lightest metal o Depressant and Diuretic (SE: hyponatremia) 1. Lithium Bromide - Depressant 2. Lithium Carbonate (Lithase®, Eskalith®) - DOC for mania Lithium Toxicity (LMNOP)  Lithium Side effects  Movement (tremor)  Nephrogenic diabetes insipidus (ADH antagonist  polyuria)  Hypothyroidism  Pregnancy problems (teratogenic) IP3 – Inositol triphosphate (affected by Lithium) Mania 1. Distractability 2. Irresponsibility 3. Grandiosity 4. Flight of ideas 5. Increase in goal directed activity/ Psychomotor agitation 6. Decrease need for sleep 7. Talkativeness or pressured speech  C. SODIUM (natrium) o Primary extracellular fluid cation o Action: fluid retention Acetate Acetate of Soda Diuretic, Urinary and systemic acidifier, Antacid Soda Saleratus Systemic antacid, Carbonating agent Bicarbonate Sal de Vichy SE: Alkalosis, Rebound hyperacidity, Edema Soda acid Carbonate Dihydrogen Phosphate/ Cathartic, Source of P or phosphate, Biphosphate Fleet Enema Urinary acidifier(+ methenamine)  HCHO NaH2PO4 (formaldehyde), NH3  urinary antiseptic Leucogen Bisulfite Sodium Hydrogen Sulfite Anti-oxidant Sodium Acid Sulfate Washing Soda, Sal soda Carbonate Soda Ash Antacid, Carbonating agent Monohydrate Na carbonate Electrolyte replenisher, Tonicity adjuster, Chloride Rock/Table/Solar salt Condiments, Preservative Alkalizer, Buffer, Diuretic, Expectorant Citrate Na3C6H5O7 Shorten the coagulation time (parenterally) Fluoride Anticariogenic (2% solution) Hydroxide Caustic soda, sosa, lye Saponifying agent (hard soap) Phosphite Reducing agent Dakin’s solution Oxidizing agent, bleaching agent Hypochlorite Chlorox Disinfectant (Labarraque’s solution) Iodide All iodides are for cough Expectorant, Antifungal, Iodine solubilizer Lactate Na3C3H5O3 Antacid, Diuretic nitrites, nitrates, Nitrite NaNO2 Natrium, Nitrosum Cyanide poisoning, Meat preservative thiosulfates, thiocyanates Nitrate Chile salt peter are vasodilators Sulfate Glauber’s salt Cathartic Tartrate C4H4O6 Primary standard for KFR (Karl Fischer Reagent) Thiocyanate Hypotensive agent (vasodilator) Thiosulfate Antichlor Cyanide poisoning with Na nitrite Na2S2O3 5H2O Hypochlor VS in iodometry and permanganometry  D. POTASSIUM (kalium) o Most abundant and predominant intracellular cation o Deficiency: hypokalemia Manifestation: muscle paralysis (Barker’s syndrome) o Diuretic, Important in muscle contraction Acetate Diuretic salts Antacid, Diuretic, Urinary and systemic alkalizer Potassium Acid Carbonate Systemic antacid, carbonating agent, Bicarbonate Salaeratus bicarbonate source Cream of tartar Bitartrate Laxative Creamor, Argol Bromide Depressant Potash Carbonate Salt of peter Antacid, carbonating agent, carbonate source Perlash, Salt of Wormwood Oxidizing agent Chlorate Component in toothpaste, gargle & mouthwash Kalium Chloratum Chloride Electrolyte replenisher (Note: SLOW push) Kali Chloridum Citrate Diuretic, Expectorant, Diaphoretic Caustic potash Hydroxide Lye potash Saponifying agent (soft soap) Potassa Iodide Kalium Jodatum Expectorant, antifungal, iodine solubilizer Oxalic acid Saltpeter removes Nitrate Salitre, Niter Diuretic, meat preservative stains of Salt prunelle Oxidizing agent, Antiseptic, Permanganate Mineral chameleon VS in permanganometry Dihydrogen Cathartic Phosphate Rochelle salt Na K Tartrate Cathartic, sequestering agent Sal signette Thiocyanate Hypotensive Sulfurated potash K2Sx K2S2O3 Liver of sulfur K arsenite Fowler’s Solution Antileukemic Sb K Tartrate Tartar emetic Schistosomiasis E. Ammonium (NH4) o Hypothetical alkali metal o Pcol action: Household ammonia – a. Diuretic contains 10% NH4; is b. Buffer known as 16° ammonia c. Expectorant (like Iodide) d. Anti-cariogenic (like Fluoride) Ammonium Bromide Depressant/Sedative Sal volatile Hartshorn Expectorant (ammonium) (NH4)2CO3 Preston Salt Antacid (carbonate) Ammonium carbonate Baker's Ammonia Basis of smelling salts (aromatic spirit of ammonia) Ammonium Sesquicarbonate Spirit of Hartshorn Aromatic NH4 Spirit Respiratory stimulant Spirit sal volatile Muriate of hartshorn Expectorant, Diuretic, Urinary acidifier Ammonium Muriate NH4Cl CI: Impaired hepatic function Sal Ammoniac Treatment for Brominism Salmiac Mercuric Ammonium Cl Topical anti-infective HgNH2Cl Ammoniated mercury White precipitate NH4I Ammonium Iodide Source of iodide, expectorant, antifungal NH4CH3COO Spirit of minderesus Styptic Ammonium acetate Strong Ammonia Ammonia Hydroxide Diluted Ammonia Solution Solution Stronger Ammonia Water circulatory stimulant by inhalation Ammoniacal AgNO3 Howe’s solution F. CESIUM o Catalyst in polymerization of resin forming material GROUP IB: COINAGE METAL – can occur in free metal state, Complexes/chelates A. COPPER (Cuprum) o Only reddish metal, 3rd most malleable, 3rd best conductor o Protein precipitant, Enhances physiological utilization of iron o Component of hemocyanin and cytochrome oxidase (Deficiency: Hypochromic anemia) o Alloys: Brass (+ Zn), Bronze (+ Sn) o Wilson’s disease | D-Penicillamine CuSO4 5 H2O Blue vitriol Component of Benedict’s, Barfoed’s, and Fehling’s Blue stone Antidote for P poisoning Caparrosa Azul Increase hematinic activity of Fe Piedra Lipiz Ingredient of Bordeux mixture  algaecide in pool *Cu3(AsO3)2 Paris green Insecticide (suicidal drug in the past) Cu(C2H3O2)2+ Copper acetoarsenate (Cu)3(C6H5O7)8 Astringent in 8% concentration B. SILVER (argentum, shining, bright) o Oligodynamic property (germicidal action) o Argyria | NSS or PNSS Soluble AgNO3 Lapiz infernulariz Warts and Opthalmia neonatorum (1% drops) – Lunar caustic Crede’s prophylaxis Indelible ink Caustic pencil, Azotas Present: Erythromycin (for N. gonorrhea and Chlamydia trachomatis – no. 1 cause of blindness) Ag(NH3)2NO3 Howe’s solution Dental protective, Desensitizing agent Insoluble AgI Poisonous, Disinfectant Ag proteinate Mild (Argyrol) Antiseptic for eye (nlt 19 nmt 23%) Strong (Protargol) Ear and throat (nlt 7.5 nmt 8.5%) Colloidal (Collargol) General germicide C. GOLD (Aurum”, Shining dawn, King of all metals, Purple of Cassibis) Gold preparations are used o Most malleable and ductile, Best conductor of electricity as Disease Modifying Anti- o Dimercaprol Rheumatic Drugs o Dissolved by: (DMARDs) for Rheumatoid Aqua regia (3 part HCl + 1 part HNO3) arthritis. Selenic acid 1. Aurothioglucose (IM) - treatment of gout and R.A 2. Gold Na Thiomalate (IM) - treatment of gout and R.A 3. Auranofin (PO) - AE: glossitis GROUP IIA: ALKALINE EARTH METALS A. BERYLLIUM o Never employed in medicine because it is the most toxic metal B. MAGNESIUM o Lightest of all structurally important metal o 2nd most abundant intracellular cation o Chlorophyll component o Compound of Grignard’s reagent o Natural Sources: 1. As silicates (talc, asbestos) 2. As CO3 (magnesite, dolomite) 3. As SO4 (kieserite) o Pcol action: 1. Laxative (PO) 2. Depressant 3. Natural Ca-channel blocker (anticonvulsant – IM) o Antidote: Ca gluconate Magnesium carbonate MgCO3 Antacid, Laxative Magnesia Milk of magnesia Mg(OH)2 Antacid, Laxative Magnesia magma Antacid, Laxative MgO Calcined magnesia Component of universal antidote 2MgO 3SiO2 Mg trisilicate Antacid (Adv: prolonged action) Epsom salt Cathartic (PO) MgSO4 Bitter salt (Ref or Anticonvulsant (IM) dissolve in cold water) Antidote for Ba and barbiturate toxicity Lemonade purganti Mg3(C6H5O7)2 Purgative lemon Talc Filtering agent Hydrated Mg Silicate Soapstone Clarifying agent French chalk Dusting powder Mg3(Si2O5)(OH)4 Asbestos C. CALCIUM o 2nd most abundant cation in extracellular fluid o Vit. D is needed for its maximum absorption o PTH controls Ca levels in the blood Hyperpara  HyperCa Hypophos o Pcol action: 1. Coagulation 2. Contraction 3. Release of neurotransmitter 4. Bones and teeth (98-99%) o Deficiency states: Osteoporosis (density) Osteomalacia (resorption) Rickets (mineralization) Hypocalcemia CaBr2 Sedative/depressant Precipitated Chalk Carbonic Acid CaCO3 Antacid, Ingredient of toothpaste, dentrifices Calcium Salt Creta Praecipitata Muriate of lime CaCl2 Ca replenisher Fosforo de Homberg Ca gluconate Ca supplement and replenisher, Heart failure Slaked lime Ca(OH)2 Milk of lime Antacid, Saponifying agent Calcium hydrate Ca(C3H5O3)2 Ca lactate Ca supplement CaHPO4 2H2O Source of Ca and PO4 CaO lime, quicklime, calx Component of Bordeux mixture, Insecticide Ca3(PO4)2 Bone ash Antacid Chlorinated lime CaClO Disinfectant, Bleaching agent Chloride of lime Gypsum Rodenticide, Prep of surgical casts and dental CaSO4 ½ H2O Terra alba impressions or 2 H2O Satin Spar Alabaster Light Plaster of Paris – calcium sulfate hemihydrate D. STRONTIUM 1. SrCl2 - Temperature desensitizing agent (Sensodyne®) E. BARIUM (Heavy) o Baritosis | Epsom salt 1. BaSO4 Ba meal, Esophotrast - radiopaque for GIT imaging (non-toxic since not soluble) 2. Ba(OH)2 Baryte - CO2 absorbent F. RADIUM o Radioactive element used for cancer radiotherapy & diagnostic purpose GROUP IIB: VOLATILE METAL A. ZINC o Present in inZulin and carbonic anhydraZe o Astringent, Antiseptic, Antiperspirant, Protectant o Parakeratosis o Metal Fume Fever | NaHCO3 Butter of Zinc Disinfectant/antiseptic, Dentin desensitizer, ZnCl2 Burnette’s disinfectant Corrosive liquid Escharotic, more caustic than astringent Zinc white Lassar’s paste Antiseptic, astringent, topical protectant ZnO Flores de Zinc Lana o Algodon Flioficos ZnO2 Antiseptic White lotion ZnS Parasiticide, topical protectant, antiseptic White sulfide Emetic, ophthalmic astringent in 0.25% sol’n ZnSO4 7 H2O White Vitriol Pharmaceutical necessity in white lotion Hydrated Zn Silicate Natural Calamine Topical protectant Zinc-Eugenol cement Dental protective B. CADMIUM o Astringent, manufacture of stink bomb o Itai-Itai | BAL 1. CdCl2 - emetic, treatment of Tinea infection 2. CdS (yellow sulfide) - anti-seborrheic 3. CdSO4 - ophthalmic antiseptic C. MERCURY (Quicksilver, Messenger of the Gods) o Diuretic, Antiseptic, Treatment of syphilis, Cathartic, Parasiticidal/fungicidal o Thermometer, amalgams (dental cement) o Minamata | EDTA 1. Hg2Cl2 Mercurous chloride (Calomel) - cathartic, local antiseptic 2. HgCl2 Mercuric chloride (Corrosive sublimate) - disinfectant 3. HgI - treatment of syphilis 4. HgI2 - stimulant of indolent ulcers 5. K2HgI4 Potassium Mercuric Iodide - antiseptic, component of Mayer’s reagent 6. HgNH2Cl White precipitate - topical antiseptic 7. HgO Yellow Precipitate - ophthalmic and anti-infective GROUP IIIA A. BORON o Industrial use: In vulcanizing rubber 1. H3BO3 (Sal sativum, Boracic acid, Hydrogen borate, orthoboric acid)  Lobster appearance  1. Buffer (ophthalmic solution 2%) 2. Antiseptic 3. Tonicity adjusting agent (isotonic can still cause hemolysis) 2. Na2B4O7 10H2O (Borax, Na tetraborate, Dobell solution, Na pyroborate, Tinkal)  Antiseptic, Eye wash, Wet dressing for wounds B. ALUMINUM o Most abundant metal o 3rd most abundant element o Astringent, Aluminum foils used for burn patients AlCl3 6 H2O Astringent, Antiseptic, Antiperspirant AlNH4(SO4)2 12H2O Alum Astringent, Antiperspirant AlK(SO4)2 12H2O Antacid, Protectant Al(OH)3 Amphogel, Cremalin gel (D/A: Constipation and PO4 deficiency) Antacid, astringent, demulcent AlPO4 Phosphagel (A: doesn’t inferfere PO4 abs.) Al2(CO3)3 Treatment of phosphatic calculi Al2O3 Alumina Treatment of silicosis Al2(SO4)3 Cake/Pickle/Pearl/Papermaker's Alum Al Acetate Burrow's Solution China clay Kaolin Adsorbent in diarrhea Native hydrated aluminum silicate Soap clay, Mineral Soap Bentonite Suspending agent Native colloidal hydrated aluminum silicate Pumice Pumice stone, Piedra Pomez Dental abrasive C. GALLIUM o Pcol use: treatment of cancer-related hypercalcemia by binding with transferring o Nonpharma: substitute for mercury in manufacture of arc lamps; Galvanized iron  GROUP IVA A. CARBON o Crystalline: Diamond (purest native form) and Graphite (lead pencil) o Amorphous: Coal and Anthracite 1. CO2 - acne, warts, corns, calluses, eczema, persistent hiccups (most potent resp. stimulant) 2. CO3 - Antacid, pharmaceutical for effervescent tablet 3. CO - 210x greater affinity to hemoglobin than oxygen leading to asphyxia then death - Targets cytochrome oxidase - Pathogonomic of CO poisoning: Cherry red color of blood and mucous membranes Treatment: 1. 100% O2 2. Artificial air (He 80%, O2 20%) 3. Hyperbaric O2 B. SILICON o 2nd most abundant element, Component of glass 1. SiO2 - Toxicity: silicosis 2. Glass Sodium silicate, Na4SiO4 - Na2CO3 + pure silica Silicates of: 3. Purified Siliceous Earth - Adsorbent 4. Kaolin Native hydrated aluminum silicate - Adsorbent Mg (talc, asb) 5. Bentonite Native colloidal hydrated aluminum silicate - Suspending agent Al (k, b, p) 6. Talc French Chalk, Piedra Grasa, Soapstone, Creta Gallica - Clarifying, dusting Zn (calamine) 7. Attapulgite Polymagma, Diatabs, Quintess - Adsorbent 8. Simethicone Polymeric dimethyl siloxane - Antiflatulent 9. Asbestos I – borosilicate C. TIN (Stannum) II – treated SL 1. SnF2 - anticariogenic 8% solution III – soda lime 2. SnO2 - germicide for Staph infection NP – gen. SL B – coeff of expansion D. LEAD (Plumbum) K – brown Pb – ↑refractive index o Astringent, Protein Precipitant o Plumbism | EDTA , Ca Versenate (adults) , Succimer (kids) 1. Pb(CH3COO)2 Sugar of Lead, Burrow’s sol’n - astringent 2. Pb2(CH3COO) Goulard’s extract - astringent, antiseptic 3. PbO Litharge® - cans (toxic) GROUP IVB A. TITANIUM (Titan, Sons of the Earth) o Powerful reducing agent 1. TiO2 - Opacifying agent (Ocusert®) and UV ray protectant B. ZIRCONIUM o antiperspirant but banned due to granuloma formation  Cyanide (CN) - MOA: inhibits cytochrome oxidase (ETC) Source: cassava, Na nitroprusside GROUP VA Treatment: 1. NaNO2/Amylnitrite MOA: methemoglobinemia 2. Sodium thiosulfate MOA: CN to thiocyanate A. NITROGEN (Mephitic air, azote, without life) 3. Methylene blue MOA: methemoglobinemia o Most abundant gas in air: 71% N2, 29% O2 N2 Azote INERT ATMOSPHERE Cont: BLACK Liquid nitrogen – refrigerant N2O Laughing Gas, Nitrogen monoxide, Inhalational anesthetic (general) Cont: BLUE Dinitrogen monoxide SE: diffusion hypoxia NO2 Nitrite Vasodilator, For CN poisoning NO3 Nitrate Preservative HNO3 Spirit of Nitre, Aqua Fortis/Fuerte/Eau Forte B. PHOSPHORUS (light carrier, St. Elmo’s Fire) o White/yellow (poisonous), Red (non-poisonous) Allotropes of P: o CuSO4  Scarlet - tribromide ∆240°C with Hg 1. PO4 - antacid, cathartic  Violet - white ∆200°C with Na  Metallic/Black - 530° with Pb 2. H3PO4 (Orthophosphoric Acid)  Red - white + chromic acid 3. HPH2O2 - antioxidant C. ARSENIC (Lewisite Metal) o Protoplasmic poison o Insecticide: Copper Aceto Arsenate (Paris green) o Mee’s Line | BAL (British Anti Lewisite) o First anti-syphilis (Paul Ehrlich) – Arsphenamine/Salvarsan/Magic bullet/Compound 606 1. As2O3 - Insecticide, Anti-leukemic 2. AsI3 - Primary standard in the preparation of cerric sulfate 3. K arsenite Fowler’s solution - antileukemic D. ANTIMONY 1. Na stibogluconate - Leishmaniasis 2. SbKOC4H4O6 Tartar emetic, Brown mixture - Schistosomiasis; emetic E. BISMUTH (Beautiful Meadow) o Astringent, Antiseptic, Internal protective for ulcer, Used in silvering of mirror o Dark stool, Blue-black gums | Dimercaprol 1. Bi Subcarbonate, Subgallate, Subnitrate - Antacid, Astringent, Antiseptic 2. Milk of Bi (Bismuth Cream) Bi subnitrate + Bi OH - Antacid, Internal protective, Inhibits H. pylori GROUP VB A. TANTALUM o Not affected by any body fluid, Sheet form used in repair of bones, nerve and tissue GROUP VIA: CHALCOGENS A. OXYGEN (Empyreal air, Dephlogisticated air, Yne, Aire Vital, Fire Air, Aire Puro) o Most abundant element, discovered by Scheele o Uses: 1. Treatment of hypoxia/asphyxia Oxygen Requirement: 2. Oxidative metabolism for the production of energy 1. Anoxic - inadequate O2 tension in air 2. Anemic - lack of O2 carrier in heme 3. Final e- acceptor in ETC 3. Stagnant - blood circulation is retarded o Container: GREEN 4. Histotoxic - cell defect interference of cell metabolism Carbon Dioxide (Carbonic Acid Gas, Carbonic Anhydride)  Container: GRAY  Solid Carbon Dioxide or “Dry Ice” - refrigerant B. SULFUR (Brimstone, Shubari, Enemy of Copper) o Antifungal, Parasiticide, Scabicide, Depilatory agent Oil of Vitriol Dehydrating agent in Pyroxylin H2SO4 Vitrilic Acid Nordhausen acid – Fuming Aceitede de Vitriolo H2SO4 Sulfur Dioxide Sulfurous Anhydride Antioxidant Flower of Sulfur Cathartic Sublimed Sulfur (condensed sulfur vapors) Asufre, Rhombic S + Lime  Vleminckx’s solution Precipitated Sulfur (sulfur + metal hydroxides) Milk of Sulfur Prepared by mixing Psoriasis, Parasiticide Sulfurated Potash (K polysulfides + K thiosulfate) Liver of Sulfur White lotion (ZnS) C. SELENIUM (Selena, Moon) - Promotes Vit. E absorption, Antioxidant (SeS2 /Selsun blue – anti-dandruff) GROUP VIB A. CHROMIUM (Glucose tolerance factor) - hyperglycemia (K2Cr2O7- powerful oxidizing agent) B. MOLYBDENUM - Co-factor enzyme (Molybdenum Oxide + FeSO4 – hematinic) C. URANIUM - Becquerel, Atomic bombs GROUP VIIA: HALOGENS (Salt-forming group) A. FLUORINE o Strongest oxidizing agent o Fluorosis (Mottled enamel, Abnormal bone growth) 1. NaF - anticariogenic at 2% solution 2. SnF2 - anticariogenic at 8% solution 3. Na2FPO3 - anticariogenic 4. CCl2F2 - refrigerant, aerosol propellant (Freon®) B. CHLORINE (Dephlogisticated muriatic acid) o Most abundant extracellular anion, green gas o Used as water disinfectant 1. Hypochlorite (Na, K) - bleaching agent 2. HCl (Muriatic acid, Spirit of Sea Salt, Marine Acid, Espiritu de Sal Marine) - treatment of achlorhydria C. BROMINE o Dark reddish brown fuming liquid with suffocating odor o Sedative/depressant o Brominism (Skin eruption, Psychosis, Weakness, Headache) | NaCl and NH4Cl D. IODINE o Oldest known germicide o Expectorant, Antifungal o Preparation of T3 and T4 o Deficiency: Goiter o Elemental Iodine preparation: 1. Strong Iodine Solution (Lugol’s Solution) - 5% 2. Iodine Solution - 2% 3. Iodine Tincture - 2% with 50% alcohol 4. Povidone-Iodine (Betadine®) - PVP (nonionic surfactant) E. ASTATINE o Only metallic o Only synthetic halogen o Only radioactive halogen GROUP VIIB A. MANGANESE o Co-factor in: 1. Protein synthesis 2. Phosphorylation 3. Fatty acid and cholesterol synthesis o Poisoning: Parkinson-like symptoms (resting tremors) 1. KMnO4 (Mineral Chameleon) - oxidizing agent, antiseptic B. TECHNETIUM (Technetos) o 1st element produced artificially o Used in preparation of radiopharmaceuticals RADIOPHARMACEUTICALS 1. Tc99m-Phytate Liver imaging & potency studies 2. Tc99m-heptagluconate Kidney imaging, determine renal function 3. Tc99m-IDA Hepatobiliary studies 4. Tc99m-Etidronate Bone imaging 5. I-131-Human Serum Albumin Blood plasma volume/cardiac output determination 6. NaI-125 Thyroid function 7. Sodium Phosphate Serum Localization of ocular tumors, polycythemia vera 8. Sodium Chromate Cr 51 RBC mass, volume, survival time, scanning of spleen 9. Gold Au 198 Scintillation scanning of the liver 10. Chlormerodin Hg 197/203 Scintillation scanning of the kidneys or the brain 2+ 1 Alpha particles (a 42He )  heaviest and slowest of all radioactive emissions (0.1 the speed of light)  penetrating power is very low and can be stopped by a sheet of paper or a very thin sheet of Al  usually emitted only from elements having atomic numbers greater than 82 + 2 Beta particles (B or B )  negatively charged species having a mass of an electron  move at a faster velocity (0.9 the speed of light)  their emissions from elements do not alter the mass number but do alter the atomic number  more penetrating power and able to travel 10 to 15 cm in water or penetrate almost 1 inch thickness of Al  sometimes called negatrons  emitted by unstable nuclei having neutrons in excess of protons 3 Gamma Radiation (t)  photon of electromagnetic radiation  demonstrates both wave and particle properties as do electrons and beta particles  short wavelength similar to x-rays and travel at the speed of light  no mass and no charge  excellent penetrating power (very thick lead is required to protect against it) GROUP VIIIA: NOBLE GASES A. HELIUM o 2nd lightest gas o Donald-duck-like sound o Use: 1. Carrier/diluents of medically important gases 2. Component of artificial gas o Container: BROWN B. NEON o For advertising C. ARGON o Most Abundant noble gas o Substitute for N2 in providing inert atmosphere; Container: RED (Argon methane) o By-product of fractionalization of liquid air D. KRYPTON o Least abundant of all noble gases o Have inhalational anesthetic activity E. XENON o Investigational with inhalatory anesthetic activity F. RADON (Niton) o Synthetic noble gas o Used for treatment of CA (cervical CA) GROUP VIIIB A. IRON o Present in proteins: Metals present in 1. Hemoglobin cytochrome oxidase: 2. Transferrin 1. Fe 3. Ferritin – storage form of iron 2. Cu 4. Cytochrome oxidase o Enhance absorption of 1. Vit C 2. Copper o Most important element in engineering o Use: hematinic o Toxicity: 1. GIT distress Iron toxicity: Hemochromatosis/Hemosiderosis 2. Cardiac collapse (Prussian blue stain of the heart) o Antidote: Dexferroxamine 1. FeSO4 (Iron Sulfate, Copperas, Green Vitriol, Iron Vitriol) - Hematinic, SE: constipation, tarry stool 2. Ferrous gluconate - Fergon®, Advantage: less irritating 3. Ferrous fumarate - Toleron® 4. FeCO3 (Chalybeate pills, Ferruginous pills) - Hematinic 5. FeCl3 - Astringent, Styptic, tannin detection 6. Basham’s Mixture (Iron + NH4 acetate) - Astringent, Styptic 7. Fe4*Fe(CN)6+3 (Ferriferrocyanide or Prussian blue) 8. Fe3*Fe(CN)6+2 (Ferroferricyanide or Turnbull’s blue) B. COBALT o Essential in development of erythrocyte and hemoglobin o Component of Vit. B12 (cyanocobalamin) o Deficiency: Megaloblastic anemia and Pernicious anemia Schilling’s test 1. CoCl2 Lover’s ink, sympathetic ink - dessicator indicator 2. Cobalt zincate Rinmann’s Green - test for Zn ion 3. Cobalt meta-aluminate Thenard’s blue - test for Al ion C. NICKEL (Old nick’s copper) o Fossil fuel, fancy jewelries D. OSMIUM o Heaviest/densest metal 1. Osmic acid and Osmium tetroxide Both used in staining microorganism for microscopic study especially electron microscopy. E. PLATINUM - Catalyst in finely divided steel F. PALLADIUM - Catalyst in finely divided steel BUFFERS o pair or related chemical compounds capable of resisting large change in the pH of a solution o composed of a weak acid & its salt (conjugate base) or a weak base & its salt (conjugate acid) Phosphate Buffer System  𝐷𝑖𝑕𝑦𝑑𝑟𝑜𝑔𝑒𝑛 + 𝑚𝑜𝑛𝑜𝑕𝑦𝑑𝑟𝑜𝑔𝑒𝑛 𝑝𝑕𝑜𝑠𝑝𝑕𝑎𝑡𝑒  D/A; insolubility of the phosphate salts of metals such as Ag, Zn, and Al and phosphate salt of growth  Sorensen Phosphate buffer system – for ophthalmic (isotonic with body fluids) Borate Buffer System  used in preparations containing metals that would otherwise precipitate in the presence of phosphate  CI in parenterals bec of toxicity of borates 3 Primary Borate Buffer System presently recognized: 1 Feldman’s Buffer System (pH 7-8.2) - boric acid + NaCl, sodium borate 2 Gifford Buffer System (6-7.8) - boric acid + KCl, sodium borate 3 Atkins and Pantin Buffer System (7.6-11) - boric acid + NaCl, sodium carbonate __________________________________________________________________________________________________ (a) Intracellular fluid (K, Mg, PO4) (b) Extracellular fluid: (Na, Cl)  interstitial fluid  plasma and vascular fluid __________________________________________________________________________________________________ Buffer systems that the body utilize: 1. Bicarbonate/Carbonic Acid (HCO3-/H2Co3) - plasma and kidneys 2- - 2. Monohydrogen phosphate (HPO4 /H2PO4 ) - cells and kidneys 3. Hemoglobin and proteins - red blood cells Acidosis – below 7.38 Alkalosis – above 7.42 COMPENSATORY MECHANISM OF THE BODY Conditions Causes Buffer System Metabolic Acidosis HCO3 deficit (diabetic acidosis, diarrhea, renal failure) HCO3-/H2Co3 Metabolic Alkalosis HCO3 excess (administration of excess alkali, vomiting) HCO3-/H2Co3 Respiratory Acidosis H2Co3 excess (cardiac disease, lung damage, drowing) Hemoglobin and protein Respiratory Alkalosis H2CO3 deficit (fever, anoxia, hysteria, salicylate poisoning) HCO3-/H2Co3 Metabolic acidosis – treated with the sodium salts of bicarbonate, lactate, acetate, and citrate Metabolic alkalosis – treated with ammonium salts (action is in the kidneys where it retards the Na-hydrogen exchange) Electrolyte Combination Therapy 1. Fluid Maintenance  to supply normal regrement for water and electrolytes to those who cannot take them orally  should contain at least 5% dextrose to minimize the build-up of metabolites associated with starvation (urea, phosphate and ketone bodies)  general electrolyte composition: Na, Cl, HCO3, Mg & P ions 2. Electrolyte Replacement  needed when there is a heavy loss of water and electrolyte Official Combination Electrolyte Infusions Ringer’s Injection – 8.6 g NaCl, 0.3 g KCl and 0.33 g Ca Chloride per liter Lactated Ringer’s Injection– 600 mg NaCl, 30 mg KCl & 20 mg Ca and 310 mg Na lactate per 100 ml Oral electrolyte solutions – to supply water and electrolyte in amount needed for maintenance – given to replace mild to moderate fluid loss __________________________________________________________________________________________________ ESSENTIAL AND TRACE IONS Essential – not synthesized by the body and must be included in the diet Trace – required for normal functioning but does not need to be included in the diet Ions Principal Metabolic Functions Clinical Manifestations of Deficiency Iron (Fe or Fe3+) 2+ Constituent of hemoglobin Anemia Endemic (simple) goiter Iodine (I-) Constituent of thyroxin and triiodothyronine Cretinism Deficiency of Vit. B12 Cobalt (Co2+) Constituent of Vit. B12 (cyanocobalamin) Pernicious anemia Polycythemia Anemia Zinc (Zn2+) Constituent of insulin and carbonic anhydrase Stunted growth Hypogonadism Formation of hemoglobin (increases iron utilization) Hypochromic anemia Copper (Cu2+) Constituent of oxidase enzymes Wilson’s disease Constituent of proteins mucopolsaccharides, Cystinuria Sulfur (S2-) heparin, biotin, detoxication Cystine renal calculi Iron – electron carrier in respiration chain; responsible for transport of molecular oxygen Body Components Containing Iron Occurrence Iron bound as Mode of Linkage Functions Blood System 1 hemoglobin Heme Oxygen Transport 2 plasma Transferrin Iron Transport Tissues 1 Functional Iron (myoglobin, cell hemes Heme Cell respiration a. ferritin 2 Storage Iron Iron pool detoxication b. hemosiderin  GASTROINTESTINAL AGENTS Inorganic agents used to treat gastrointestinal disorders include: 1 antacids - products for altering gastric pH 2 protectives for intestinal inflammation 3 adsorbents for intestinal toxins 4 cathartics or laxatives for constipation Stomach pH: 1 when empty to 7 when food is present Gastritis – specified circumscribed erosion Peptic ulcer or Esophageal ulcer (heartburn) occurs when the esophageal sphincter is defective due to gastric food entering the esophagus during a belch or upon lying in bed; emotional makeup is also a factor. Malignancy and hemorrhage are common with gastric ulcers. Perforation is more common with duodenal ulcers. Antacids - alkaline bases used to neutralize the excess gastric HCl associated with gastritis and peptic ulcers a. should not be absorbable or cause systemic alkalosis b. should not be a laxative or cause constipation c. should exert the effect rapidly and over a long period of time d. reaction with gastric HCl should not cause a large evolution of gas e. should buffer in the pH 4-6 range f. should probably inhibit pepsin COMBINATION ANTACID PREPARATIONS a. Aluminum Hydroxide Gel-Magnesium Hydroxide (Aludrox, Wingel, Maalox, Creamalin) b. Aluminum Hydroxide Gel-Magnesium Trisilicate (Gelusil, Tricreamalate, Triosgel) c. Magaldrate – Aluminum Hydroxide & Magnesium Hydroxide (Riopan) d. Simethicone-Containing Antacids (Di-gel, Mylanta, Kremil-S) – simethicone - defoaming agent e. Aliginic Acid-Sodium Bicarbonate-Containing Antacids (Gaviscon, Fomtab) PROTECTIVES AND ADSORBENTS – mild diarrhea Diarrhea - when some factor impairs digestion and/or adsoprtion, thereby increasing bulk of intestinal tract Acute Diarrhea - caused by bacterial toxins, chemical poisons, drugs, allergy and disease Chronic Diarrhea - from GI surgery, carcinomas, chronic inflammatory conditions & various adsorptive defects). BISMUTH-CONTAINING PRODUCTS  intestinal hydrogen sulfate acts upon bismuth salts to form bismuth sulfate (result: black stools) SALINE CATHARTICS (purgatives) o Laxatives – mild cathartics, prolonged use causes “Laxative habit” 1. Stimulant Laxatives – act by local irritation 2. Bulk-forming Laxatives – from cellulose and other non-digestible polysaccharides which swell when wet 3. Emollient Laxatives – lubricants or stool softeners (e.g. Mineral Oil) 4. Saline Cathartics – increase osmotic load of GI tract NON-OFFICIAL SALINE CATHARTICS Sodium Sulfate (Glauber's Salt) Potassium Phosphate (Dibasic Potassium Phosphate, Dipotassium Hydrogen Phosphate, DKP) Potassium Bitartrate (Cream of Tartar, Potassium Acid Tartrate, Potassium Hydrogen Tartrate) Calomel (Mercurous Chloride, Mild Mercury Chloride) FLAME TEST METALS Non-luminous flame Under cobalt glass Sodium persistent golden yellow nil Potassium violet crimson Lithium carmine red purple Calcium brick red light green Strontium crimson purple Barium yellowish green bluish-green Borate, Cu, Tl, P green Pb, As, Sb, Bi, Cu blue yellow Ammonium colorless GROUPS OF ANION Group No. - Member Precipitate Formed and Visual Result with 1 M AgNO3 + 6 M HNO3 with 1 M BaCl2 + HNO3 I – Cl, Br I AgCl *white+ No ppt AgBr *cream+ AgI *yellow+ insoluble in HNO3 II – NO2-, S-2, C2H3O4- (acetate) AgS *black+ No ppt soluble in HNO3, NO2 and C2H3O2 *no ppt+ III – SO3, CO3-2, C2O4-2 White ppt soluble in HNO3 White ppt of BaSO4, CaSO4, BaC2O4 soluble in HNO3 IV – PO3-3, AsO4-3, CrO4-2 Ag3PO4 *yellow+ BaCrO4 *yellow+ Ag3AsO4 *brown+ Ba3(AsO4)2 *white+ Ag2CrO4 *red+ all ppt soluble in HNO3 all ppt soluble in HNO3 V – NO3-, ClO- No ppt No ppt VI – SO4 -2 No ppt White ppt soluble in HNO3 GROUPS OF CATION GROUP OF CATION CATION COLOR OF ADD’TL PPT I (Insoluble chloride) Pb+2 White Yellow ppt with K2Cr2O7 Hg+2 White Black ppt with NH3 Mercuric ion: Yellow ppt with NaOH Scarlet ppt with excess KI Ag+2 White White ppt with HNO3, soluble in NH4OH II (Acid insoluble sulfide) A. Insoluble in acid and Hg+ Black base Bi+3 Brown Cu+2 Black Reddish brown ppt with K ferroCN Blue in solution Cd+2 Yellow B. Insoluble in acid As+3 Yellow As+5 Yellow Sb+ Orange In the presence of HCl, gives a violet ppt with rhodamine B (a pink dye) Sn Yellow III (Base insoluble sulfides) Fe Brown Al White (+) Thenard’s blue Cr Gray green Ni Black Green in solution Co Black (+) Vogel test Mn Pink Zn white (+) Rinmann’s Green IV (Sulfate insoluble groups) Ba White Ca White Sr White V (Soluble group/Alkali Mg metals) Na Yellow ppt with cobalt uranyl acetate K White ppt with Na bitartrate NH4 Alkalinized vapour turns red litmus paper to blue Brown ppt with Nessler’s reagent  METAL OR ANION COLOR REACTIONS Acetate (CH3COO- or H2SO4 + Ethanol (CH3C2OH)  fruity odor (ethyl acetate) C2H3O2-) Aluminum (Al) + Ammonium TS  gelatinous ppt that dissolves in excess Ammonium TS + Aluminon reagent red lake Ammonium + cobalt solution (acidic) intense blue colored complex at interface thiocyanate (NH4SCN) + Ferric salts blood red Fe(SCN)3 (ferric thiocyanate) Arsenate (AsO43-) + Silver nitrate TS chocolate brown soluble in HNO3 + Ammonium molybdate test yellow ppt Arsenites (AsO33-) + Silver nitrate TS yellow ppt soluble in HNO3 + Magnesia mixture differentiating test for arsenates & arsenites Borates (BO33-) + H2SO4 + methanol (CH3OH) green bordered flame + Turmeric paper orange +NaOH  olive green Bromine (Br) + CCl4 (carbon tetrachloride) Orange color Carbonate (CO32-) + acidic aqueous solution effervescence + Phenolphthalein red Chloride (Cl) + AgNO3 white curdy ppt, soluble in NH3, insol in HNO3 Citrate (C6H5O73-) +pyridine + acetic anhydride carmine red (3:1)/Denige’s reagent *Denige’s test is the differentiating test between citrates and tartrates Chromium + NaOH grayish green slug, which dissolves with excess reagent Cobalt + NaOH blue ppt of Co(OH)2 (boiling) olive green rose green + potassium nitrate (KNO2) + acetic acid yellow ppt + α-nitro-β-naphthol brown ppt soluble in HCl Copper + Fe + HCl deposit of red film on iron + potassium ferrocyanide green ppt forming a blue solution with ammonia Iodide + Chlorine water or KMnO4 solution violet color + H2SO4 + sodium bisulfite(cold) decolorized + H2SO4 + oxalic acid (hot) decolorized Nickel + dimethylglyoxime bright red crystalline ppt insoluble in NH3 + α-nitro-β-naphthol reddish brown ppt soluble in HCl Phosphate (PO43-) + Silver nitrate yellow ppt + Ammonium molybdate yellow ppt in HNO3 and NH3 Potassium (K) + Tartaric acid white crystals of potassium bitartrate insoluble in ethanol and glacial acetic acid but soluble in NaOH *Potassium bitartrate is the only insoluble compound of potassium Saccharin Fluorescin test: Resorcinol + H2SO4 + fluorescent green liquid excess NaOH Salicylate + Ferric chloride (FeCl3) violet color + Acids white ppt of salicylic acid Silver (Ag) + HCl white curdy ppt insoluble in HNO3 but soluble in NH3 Tartrate + Pyridine + acetic anhydride (3:1) emerald green Thiosulfate (S2O32-) + HCl white ppt turning yellow + FeCl3 dark violet which quickly disappears Zinc H2S white ppt of ZnS (only white sulfide) COMMON NAMES CHEMICAL NAME FORMULA Alcohol, grain ethyl alcohol or ethanol C2H5OH Alcohol, wood methyl alcohol or methanol CH3OH Alum potassium aluminum sulfate K2SO4 · Al(SO4)3 · 24H2O Ammonia water ammonium hydroxide solution NH4OH Agua Fortis concentrated nitric acid HNO3 Agua Regia conc. nitric acid and conc. hydrochloric acid HNO3 / 3HCl Baking soda sodium bicarbonate NaHCO3 Baryte barium hydroxide Ba(OH)2 Bauxite impure aluminum oxide Al2O3 Benzol benzene C6H6 Bleaching powder calcium oxychloride or chloride of lime CaOCl2 Blue vitriol copper sulfate CuSO4 · 5 H2O Borax sodium tetraborate Na2B4O7 · 10 H2O Brimstone sulfur S Brine sodium chloride solution NaCl Calomel mercurous chloride Hg2Cl2 Cane sugar sucrose C12H22O11 Carbolic acid phenol C6H5OH Carbona carbon tetrachloride CCl4 Carborundum silicon carbide SiC Caustic potash potassium hydroxide KOH Chalk calcium carbonate CaCO3 Chile saltpeter sodium nitrate NaNO3 Chloroform trichloromethane CHCl3 Cinnabar impure merciruc sulfide HgS Corrosive sublimate mercuric chloride HgCl2 Cream of tartar potassium bitartrate KHC4H4O6 Cryolite sodium aluminum fluoride Na3AlF6 Deuterium oxide heavy water D2O Dry ice solid carbon dioxide CO2 Epsom salts magnesium sulfate MgSO4 · 7 H2O Flourspar calcium fluoride CaF2 COMMON NAMES CHEMICAL NAME FORMULA Galena lead sulfide PbS Glauber's salt sodium sulfate decahydrate Na2SO4 · 10 H2O Gypsum dihydrated calcium sulfate CaSO4 · 2 H2O Hematite ferric oxide Fe2O3 Iodoform triiodomethane CHI3 Laughing gas nitrous oxide N2O Limestone calcium carbonate CaCO3 Limewater calcium hydroxide solution Ca(OH)2 Litharge lead oxide PbO Lunar caustic silver nitrate AgNO3 Lye sodium hydroxide NaOH Marsh gas methane CH4 Milk of Magnesia magnesium hydroxide Mg(OH)2 Muriatic acid hydrochloric acid HCl Nitroglycerine glyceryl nitrate or glyceryl trinitrate C3H5(NO3)3 Oil of vitriol conc. sulfuric acid H2SO4 Phosgene carbonyl chloride COCl2 Plaster of Paris hydrated calcium sulfate (CaSO4)2 · H2O Prussian blue ferric ferrocyanide Fe4*Fe(CN)6+3 Prussic acid hydrocyanic acid HCN Pyrite iron sulfide FeS2 Quicklime calcium oxide CaO Quicksilver mercury Hg Rochelle salt sodium potassium tartrate NaKC4H4O6 Sal ammoniac ammonium chloride NH4Cl Salt (table) sodium chloride NaCl Saltpeter potassium nitrate KNO3 Sand silicon dioxide SiO2 Slaked lime calcium hydroxide Ca(OH)2 Turnbull's blue ferrous ferricyanide Fe3*Fe(CN)6+2 Vinegar dilute acetic acid CH3COOH Washing soda (sal soda) sodium carbonate Na2CO3 · 10 H2O Water glass sodium silicate Na2SiO3 Zinc blende impure zinc sulfide ZnS  ORGANIC CHEMISTRY o branch of chemistry that deals with carbon-containing compounds with: H, O, P, N, S, X Organic Compounds Simple Hydrocarbons Hydrocarbon Derivatives Alicyclic/ Aliphatic Aromatic X N O S Carbocyclic Amines ROH Alkanes RX RSH 1° RNH2 1° RCH2OH 2° R2NH 2° R2CHOH Alkenes ArX 3° R3N 3° R3COH RSR 4° R4N+ ArOH Alkynes ArSH ROCNH2 ROR RCHO