Business Management 2024 PDF

Basics of business 1. Purpose: Every business starts with an idea / concept. It needs a clear purpose or that defines why it exists and what it aims to achieve. This sets the direction and guides decision-making. 2. Market Research: Once an idea / concept has been set, Understanding...

Basics of business 1. Purpose: Every business starts with an idea / concept. It needs a clear purpose or that defines why it exists and what it aims to achieve. This sets the direction and guides decision-making. 2. Market Research: Once an idea / concept has been set, Understanding your target market is very crucial. This involves identifying potential customers, their needs, preferences, and behaviors. Market research helps in shaping your products/services to meet customer demands effectively. 3. Business Plan: A business plan outlines your business goals, the strategies to achieve them, and the expected timeframe. Use SMART Goal (Specific Measurable Achievable Relevant Time Bound) It serves as a roadmap for your business and is essential for securing funding or investments. 4. Legal Structure: Choosing the right legal structure (e.g., sole proprietorship, partnership, LLC, corporation) affects taxes, liability, and operations. Each structure has different legal and financial implications. 5. Finances: Managing finances is key. This includes budgeting, managing cash flow, and keeping accurate financial records. Understanding basic accounting principles is crucial for financial health and decision-making. 6. Marketing and Sales: Effective marketing helps you reach and attract customers. It includes branding, advertising, promotions, and digital marketing. Sales strategies involve converting leads into customers and maintaining customer relationships. 7. Operations: This involves managing day-to-day activities to deliver products/services efficiently. It includes production, logistics, quality control, and customer service. 8. Human Resources: If your business has employees, HR functions are important. This includes hiring, training, managing, and motivating staff, as well as complying with labor laws. 9. Risk Management: Identifying and managing risks (financial, operational, legal, etc.) is crucial. This involves having contingency plans and insurance to protect the business from unforeseen events. 10. Ethics and Social Responsibility: Operating ethically and responsibly enhances reputation and customer trust. This includes considerations such as environmental impact, fair labor practices, and community engagement. These are foundational aspects of business that entrepreneurs and business owners need to understand and manage effectively to build a successful enterprise. Departments in an Organization Depending on the work area and type of business an organization can have various departments Some of the commonly heard departments are - FInance and Accounts dept - Human resource department - Sales and Marketing - Production - Procurement - Administration department - IT department - Logistics, etc International Business International business refers to commercial activities that involve transactions across national borders. It involves the exchange of goods, services, technology, and capital between countries, and it can take various forms, including exporting, importing, foreign direct investment (FDI), licensing, and franchising. Key Aspects of International Business: 1. Globalization: The interconnectedness of economies worldwide has facilitated international trade and investment, leading to increased opportunities and competition for businesses. Typical growth in international market Domestic >>, International, >> Multinational, >> Global, >> Transnational 2. Market Entry Strategies: ○ Exporting: Selling goods or services produced in one country to customers in another country. ○ Foreign Direct Investment (FDI): Establishing and operating facilities or subsidiaries in foreign countries. ○ Licensing and Franchising: Allowing foreign entities to use intellectual property or business models in exchange for royalties or fees. ○ Joint Ventures: Partnering with a local company in a foreign market to share resources, risks, and expertise. 3. Cultural and Regulatory Differences: Understanding cultural nuances, consumer behaviors, and regulatory environments in different countries is crucial for success. This includes adapting marketing strategies, product offerings, and business practices to local customs and laws. 4. Currency Exchange and Financial Risks: Dealing with currency fluctuations and managing financial risks associated with international transactions requires careful planning and hedging strategies. 5. Global Supply Chains: Many businesses operate within global supply chains, sourcing raw materials and components from multiple countries and assembling or distributing products globally.  6. Legal and Political Considerations: International businesses must navigate diverse legal systems, trade regulations, tariffs, and political stability or instability in different countries. 7. Technology and Communication: Advances in technology have facilitated communication, coordination, and logistics across borders, enabling smoother international business operations. 8. Ethical and Social Responsibility: Operating ethically and responsibly across different cultures and countries is essential for maintaining reputation and sustainability. Challenges in International Business: Cultural Differences: Misunderstandings or misinterpretations can affect business relationships and operations. Political Instability: Changes in government policies or political unrest can impact business operations and investments. Logistics and Infrastructure: Challenges in transportation, infrastructure, and supply chain management can affect the efficiency of international operations. Legal and Regulatory Compliance: Navigating complex legal frameworks and regulatory requirements in different countries. Financial Risks: Currency fluctuations, exchange rate risks, and financial volatility in international markets. Successful international business operations require careful planning, market research, strategic partnerships, and a deep understanding of global economic, political, and cultural dynamics. Organization structure and Decision making The organizational structure of a company significantly impacts decision-making processes and outcomes. Here’s how different organizational structures can influence decision making: 1. Centralized vs. Decentralized Structures: ○ Centralized Structure: Decision-making authority is concentrated at the top levels of the organization. This can lead to quicker decisions as there is a clear chain of command. However, it may result in less flexibility and innovation, as lower-level employees have limited autonomy. ○ Decentralized Structure: Decision-making authority is distributed across various levels of the organization. This allows for quicker adaptation to local conditions and fosters innovation at lower levels. However, it can lead to inconsistency in decision-making if there is not enough coordination. 2. Functional vs. Divisional Structures: ○ Functional Structure: Departments are organized by functions such as marketing, finance, operations, etc. Decision making tends to be specialized within each function, which can lead to expertise-driven decisions. However, it may result in silos and slower cross-functional coordination. ○ Divisional Structure: Organized by divisions or units based on product lines, geographic regions, or customer segments. Each division has its own decision-making authority, which can lead to faster response times and better alignment with local needs. However, it may lead to duplication of efforts and coordination challenges across divisions. 3. Matrix Structure: ○ Combines aspects of both functional and divisional structures, often used in complex organizations. Decision-making authority is shared between functional departments and project teams or product divisions. This structure allows for both functional expertise and cross-functional collaboration, but it can be complex and lead to power struggles. 4. Flat vs. Tall Hierarchies: ○ Flat Hierarchy: Fewer levels of management between top executives and front-line employees. This can promote quicker decision making and more  empowerment of employees. However, it may lead to unclear roles and responsibilities. ○ Tall Hierarchy: Multiple layers of management between top executives and front-line employees. Decision-making can be slower due to the hierarchical levels involved. However, it provides clear reporting structures and centralized control. 5. Impact on Communication and Coordination: ○ The structure determines how information flows within the organization. In centralized structures, communication tends to be top-down, while decentralized structures encourage more lateral and bottom-up communication. ○ Effective decision making often requires efficient communication and coordination among different parts of the organization. The structure influences how effectively this can be achieved. In summary, the organizational structure shapes decision-making processes by defining roles, responsibilities, communication channels, and authority levels within the organization. Each type of structure has its advantages and challenges, and the choice of structure should align with the organization's strategy, goals, and culture to optimize decision-making effectiveness. TCS recently changed its organization structure. Earlier it was based on Client revenue size. For example Less than $10 million, $10 Million to $50 Million, 50 Million to 500 MIllion and $ 500 million and above. It didnt matter whether it was from Pharma sector, or Banking sector. Clients and organisation was based on revenue size. But provided hindrance on organisation functioning. Especially when a client grew from $ 10 million bucket to $ 10-50 million and so on when it moved a bucket up or down. The whole communication was getting disrupted. To smoothen the transition, TCS decided to base its organization based on Sector it was serving and geography. For instance BFSI segment were all coming under one leadership and so did Pharma, Manufacturing, etc. Further they were broken down as US, geography, Europe Asian and India. This helped the organisation work more efficiently and be more effective for its customer base. Roles Responsibilities Rules (RRR) In an organization, roles, responsibilities, and rules play crucial roles in defining how work is structured, executed, and managed. Here’s a breakdown of each: Roles: Definition: A role is a set of responsibilities, tasks, and authorities assigned to an individual or a group within an organization. Purpose: Roles clarify expectations, establish accountability, and define the scope of authority. They ensure that every function and task necessary for the organization's operation is identified and assigned. Examples: Examples of roles include CEO, manager, sales representative, software developer, customer service agent, etc. Responsibilities: Definition: Responsibilities are specific duties or obligations associated with a particular role. They outline what needs to be accomplished and the actions required to fulfill the role effectively. Purpose: Responsibilities ensure that individuals understand their contributions to the organization's goals. They help in setting priorities, managing time effectively, and aligning individual efforts with organizational objectives. Examples: Responsibilities can vary widely depending on the role but may include tasks such as managing budgets, leading projects, providing customer support, developing marketing strategies, etc. Rules: Definition: Rules are guidelines or directives that dictate how activities and decisions should be made within an organization. They set boundaries and standards for behavior, operations, and interactions. Purpose: Rules ensure consistency, fairness, and compliance with legal and ethical standards. They promote orderly conduct, reduce risks, and provide a framework for decision-making.  Examples: Examples of rules can include policies on data protection, codes of conduct, safety regulations, financial procedures, attendance policies, etc. Importance of Roles, Responsibilities, and Rules: 1. Clarity and Alignment: Clearly defined roles, responsibilities, and rules ensure that everyone understands their contributions and how they fit into the organization’s overall objectives. 2. Accountability: Assigning responsibilities and setting rules establishes clear accountability. Individuals know what is expected of them and are accountable for fulfilling their duties. 3. Efficiency and Coordination: Roles and responsibilities help in organizing work efficiently, avoiding duplication of effort, and promoting collaboration among team members. 4. Compliance and Risk Management: Rules ensure compliance with legal, regulatory, and ethical standards. They mitigate risks associated with misconduct, errors, or non-compliance. 5. Flexibility and Adaptability: While roles and responsibilities provide structure, organizations must also be adaptable to change. This may involve periodically reviewing and updating roles, responsibilities, and rules to align with evolving business needs, market conditions, and technological advancements. In summary, roles, responsibilities, and rules form the foundation of organizational structure and governance. They clarify expectations, promote accountability, guide behavior, and contribute to the overall effectiveness and success of an organization. Teamwork and Leadership Teamwork and leadership are essential components of organizational success, contributing to productivity, innovation, employee satisfaction, and overall effectiveness. Here's a closer look at their importance: Importance of Teamwork: 1. Achieving Common Goals: Teams bring together diverse skills, perspectives, and experiences to collaborate towards achieving common objectives. By pooling resources and expertise, teams can tackle complex tasks more effectively than individuals working alone. 2. Synergy and Innovation: Effective teamwork fosters synergy, where the combined effort of team members generates ideas, solutions, and innovations that may not be possible individually. Brainstorming, constructive debate, and creative problem-solving are encouraged within teams. 3. Improved Decision Making: Teams can make more informed decisions by drawing on the knowledge and insights of multiple members. Different viewpoints help in considering various options, assessing risks, and selecting the best course of action. 4. Enhanced Communication: Teamwork promotes open communication channels where members share information, provide feedback, and seek clarification. This transparency reduces misunderstandings and improves overall organizational communication. 5. Employee Engagement and Satisfaction: Collaboration in teams fosters a sense of belonging and camaraderie among employees. When individuals feel valued and included in decision-making processes, their job satisfaction and motivation tend to increase. 6. Efficiency and Productivity: Teams can divide tasks based on strengths and specialization, leading to greater efficiency in completing projects and assignments. This division of labor allows for a more streamlined workflow and faster project completion. Importance of Leadership: 1. Guidance and Direction: Effective leaders provide vision, direction, and purpose to their teams. They align organizational goals with team objectives and inspire members to work towards achieving them.  2. Motivation and Inspiration: Leadership involves motivating and inspiring team members to perform at their best. By setting clear expectations, recognizing achievements, and providing support, leaders boost morale and encourage a positive work environment. 3. Conflict Resolution: Leaders manage conflicts that arise within teams, promoting constructive dialogue and facilitating resolution. They encourage open communication, mediate disagreements, and maintain team cohesion. 4. Decision Making: Leaders make timely and informed decisions, considering the input of team members and stakeholders. They weigh options, assess risks, and take responsibility for outcomes, fostering trust and confidence within the team. 5. Development of Talent: Good leaders invest in the development of their team members, identifying strengths and areas for growth. They provide opportunities for skill-building, mentorship, and career advancement, thereby nurturing future leaders within the organization. 6. Accountability and Responsibility: Leaders hold themselves and their teams accountable for achieving goals and upholding organizational values. They set high standards of performance and integrity, leading by example. Integration of Teamwork and Leadership: Collaborative Leadership: Effective leaders promote teamwork by fostering a culture of collaboration, respect, and mutual support. They empower teams to take ownership of projects, encourage knowledge-sharing, and celebrate collective achievements. Shared Goals: Leaders align individual and team goals with the organization's strategic objectives, emphasizing the importance of teamwork in achieving success. They facilitate cross-functional collaboration and remove barriers that hinder teamwork. In conclusion, teamwork and leadership are interconnected pillars that drive organizational effectiveness and success. By fostering collaboration, inspiring innovation, and providing guidance, organizations can harness the collective potential of their teams to achieve sustainable growth and competitive advantage. Time Management Time management is a critical skill that allows individuals to prioritize tasks, allocate resources efficiently, and achieve goals effectively within a set timeframe. Here are key principles and strategies for effective time management: Principles of Time Management: 1. Setting Clear Goals: Define specific, measurable objectives to guide your daily and long-term activities. Clear goals help you prioritize tasks and focus on what's most important. 2. Prioritization: Identify tasks based on urgency and importance. Use tools like the Eisenhower Matrix (urgent vs. important) to categorize tasks and allocate time accordingly. 3. Planning and Scheduling: Create a daily, weekly, or monthly schedule outlining tasks, deadlines, and milestones. Break down larger tasks into smaller, manageable steps. 4. Time Allocation: Allocate time blocks for different activities, ensuring a balance between work, personal life, and self-care. Use techniques like time blocking or the Pomodoro Technique (working in focused intervals) to enhance productivity. 5. Eliminating Time Wasters: Identify and minimize distractions such as excessive social media use, unnecessary meetings, or multitasking. Stay focused on tasks that contribute directly to your goals. 6. Learning to Say No: Prioritize your commitments and learn to decline tasks or requests that do not align with your goals or priorities. 7. Delegate and Collaborate: Delegate tasks to others when possible, leveraging team strengths and promoting collaboration. This frees up time for higher-priority activities. 8. Regular Review and Adjustment: Review your progress regularly to assess what's working and where adjustments are needed. Be flexible and willing to adapt your schedule based on changing priorities or unforeseen circumstances. Strategies for Effective Time Management: Use of Technology: Utilize productivity tools and apps for task management, scheduling, and time tracking. Examples include Todoist, Trello, Google Calendar, or time management features integrated into project management software. Batching Similar Tasks: Group similar tasks together to minimize transitions and maximize efficiency. For example, handle all email correspondence at specific times rather than throughout the day. Setting Deadlines and Milestones: Break down projects into smaller deadlines and milestones to stay on track and monitor progress effectively. Taking Breaks and Rest: Schedule regular breaks to recharge and maintain focus. Short breaks between tasks can improve productivity and reduce mental fatigue. Continuous Improvement: Invest in ongoing learning and skill development related to time management techniques. Attend workshops, read books, or seek mentorship to refine your approach. Benefits of Effective Time Management: Increased Productivity: Completing tasks efficiently and on time boosts productivity and reduces stress associated with last-minute deadlines. Improved Focus and Concentration: Prioritizing tasks and minimizing distractions enhances concentration and work quality. Better Work-Life Balance: Efficient time management allows for more time spent on personal interests, hobbies, and relationships, promoting overall well-being. Enhanced Career Growth: Meeting deadlines, achieving goals, and managing responsibilities effectively contribute to professional success and advancement. By implementing these principles and strategies, individuals can optimize their use of time, reduce stress, and achieve greater balance and satisfaction in both personal and professional life. Stress Management Stress management involves techniques and strategies to help control and reduce stress levels. Here are some effective methods for managing stress: 1. Exercise Regularly Physical activity can help reduce stress hormones and trigger the release of endorphins, which improve mood. Activities like walking, running, yoga, or strength training can be beneficial. 2. Practice Mindfulness and Meditation Mindfulness involves being present in the moment and can help reduce anxiety. Meditation practices like deep breathing, progressive muscle relaxation, or guided imagery can help calm the mind. 3. Maintain a Healthy Diet Eating a balanced diet can improve your overall mood and energy levels. Limit caffeine and sugar intake, which can exacerbate stress. 4. Get Enough Sleep Aim for 7-9 hours of sleep per night. Good sleep hygiene, such as a regular sleep schedule and a relaxing bedtime routine, can improve sleep quality. 5. Connect with Others Spending time with friends and family can provide emotional support. Joining clubs or groups with similar interests can also help reduce feelings of isolation. 6. Manage Time Effectively Prioritize tasks and break them into manageable steps. Use planners or digital tools to keep track of deadlines and commitments. 7. Set Boundaries Learn to say no to tasks or activities that are too overwhelming. Set limits on work hours and ensure you have time for relaxation and hobbies. 8. Engage in Hobbies and Activities You Enjoy Engaging in activities you love can provide a sense of accomplishment and joy. Creative activities like painting, playing music, or gardening can be particularly stress-relieving. 9. Seek Professional Help If stress becomes overwhelming, consider seeking help from a mental health professional. Therapy, counseling, or support groups can provide additional strategies and support. 10. Practice Relaxation Techniques Techniques like deep breathing, progressive muscle relaxation, or visualization can help reduce stress. 11. Maintain a Positive Outlook Practice gratitude and focus on positive aspects of your life. Reframing negative thoughts can help reduce stress. Implementing these strategies can help create a balanced and healthier approach to managing stress. Dealing with Stress at Workplace Dealing with stress at the office requires both proactive and reactive strategies to manage stressors and maintain well-being. Here are some effective approaches: 1. Prioritize and Organize Tasks Use to-do lists to keep track of tasks and prioritize them based on urgency and importance. Break down large tasks into smaller, manageable steps to avoid feeling overwhelmed. 2. Take Regular Breaks Take short breaks throughout the day to recharge. Consider using techniques like the Pomodoro Technique, which involves working for 25 minutes and then taking a 5-minute break. 3. Set Realistic Goals Set achievable goals and be realistic about what you can accomplish in a day. Avoid overcommitting and learn to say no when necessary. 4. Create a Comfortable Workspace Ensure your workspace is ergonomically designed to prevent physical strain. Keep your workspace organized and free from clutter to reduce distractions. 5. Practice Deep Breathing and Relaxation Techniques Deep breathing exercises can help calm your mind and reduce stress. Consider mindfulness meditation or progressive muscle relaxation during breaks. 6. Maintain Open Communication Communicate with your supervisor or colleagues about your workload and any challenges you are facing. Seek support and ask for help when needed. 7. Stay Physically Active Incorporate physical activity into your day, even if it's just a short walk during lunch. Consider desk exercises or stretching to alleviate tension. 8. Maintain Healthy Eating Habits Avoid excessive caffeine and sugary snacks, which can increase stress and energy crashes. Eat balanced meals and stay hydrated throughout the day. 9. Set Boundaries Establish clear boundaries between work and personal life. Avoid checking work emails or doing work-related tasks outside of office hours. 10. Seek Professional Development Invest in skills development and training to feel more confident and competent in your role. Attend workshops or seek mentorship to improve your job performance and reduce stress. 11. Utilize Employee Assistance Programs (EAP) If available, take advantage of employee assistance programs that offer counseling and stress management resources. Attend wellness programs or workshops provided by your employer. 12. Develop a Support Network Build strong relationships with colleagues for mutual support. Share experiences and strategies for managing stress with your peers. 13. Focus on What You Can Control Identify aspects of your job you can control and focus on improving those areas. Let go of things that are beyond your control and avoid unnecessary worry. 14. Practice Gratitude Take a few moments each day to reflect on positive aspects of your job and express gratitude. Keep a gratitude journal to help shift your focus to the positive. 15. Seek Professional Help if Needed If stress becomes overwhelming, consider seeking help from a mental health professional. Therapy or counseling can provide additional strategies and support for managing stress. Implementing these strategies can help create a healthier and more productive work environment, reducing stress and enhancing overall well-being. Business Management in Digital World Business management in the digital world involves leveraging technology to enhance operations, improve customer experience, and drive growth. Here are some key strategies and considerations for managing a business in the digital age: 1. Embrace Digital Transformation Adopt digital tools and technologies to streamline operations and improve efficiency. Implement cloud computing solutions for scalable and flexible IT infrastructure. 2. Utilize Data Analytics Use data analytics to gain insights into customer behavior, market trends, and business performance. Make data-driven decisions to improve products, services, and marketing strategies. 3. Enhance Customer Experience Develop user-friendly websites and mobile apps to provide a seamless customer experience. Utilize CRM (Customer Relationship Management) systems to manage customer interactions and improve service. 4. Leverage Social Media Use social media platforms to engage with customers, build brand awareness, and promote products or services. Monitor social media trends and feedback to stay responsive and relevant. 5. Implement Digital Marketing Utilize SEO (Search Engine Optimization), SEM (Search Engine Marketing), email marketing, and content marketing to reach target audiences.  Use analytics tools to track the effectiveness of marketing campaigns and adjust strategies accordingly. 6. Focus on Cybersecurity Implement robust cybersecurity measures to protect sensitive business and customer data. Regularly update software and conduct security audits to prevent cyber threats. 7. Adopt Agile Practices Use agile methodologies to enhance flexibility and responsiveness in project management. Encourage collaboration and continuous improvement within teams. 8. Invest in E-commerce Develop and optimize e-commerce platforms to expand sales channels and reach a global audience. Ensure a secure and user-friendly online shopping experience. 9. Foster Innovation Encourage a culture of innovation and continuous learning within the organization. Invest in R&D (Research and Development) to stay ahead of technological advancements. 10. Utilize AI and Automation Implement AI (Artificial Intelligence) and automation to improve operational efficiency and reduce manual workloads. Use chatbots for customer service, predictive analytics for decision-making, and automation for repetitive tasks. 11. Remote Work and Collaboration Tools Utilize remote work tools like video conferencing, project management software, and collaboration platforms. Establish clear communication channels and guidelines for remote teams. 12. Develop Digital Skills Invest in training and development to equip employees with the necessary digital skills. Encourage continuous learning and upskilling to keep pace with technological changes. 13. Monitor Digital Trends Stay updated on emerging digital trends and technologies that can impact your business. Be proactive in adopting new tools and practices that can offer a competitive advantage. 14. Enhance Supply Chain Management Use digital tools to optimize supply chain management and improve transparency. Implement IoT (Internet of Things) solutions for real-time tracking and inventory management. 15. Measure and Analyze Performance Use KPIs (Key Performance Indicators) and digital dashboards to track business performance. Regularly review and analyze metrics to identify areas for improvement and growth. By integrating these strategies, businesses can effectively manage and thrive in the digital world, staying competitive and responsive to the rapidly changing market dynamics. Change Management Change management is the systematic approach to dealing with the transition or transformation of an organization's goals, processes, or technologies. It involves preparing, supporting, and helping individuals and teams in making organizational change. Here are key steps and strategies for effective change management: 1. Establish a Clear Vision and Objectives Define the purpose of the change and what you aim to achieve. Communicate the vision clearly to all stakeholders to ensure alignment and understanding. 2. Create a Change Management Plan Develop a detailed plan that outlines the steps, timelines, resources, and responsibilities required for the change. Identify potential risks and develop mitigation strategies. 3. Engage Leadership and Stakeholders Secure commitment and support from top management and key stakeholders. Ensure leaders are visibly involved and supportive of the change process. 4. Communicate Effectively Develop a communication plan that addresses the who, what, when, and how of communication. Use multiple channels to keep everyone informed and provide regular updates. 5. Involve Employees and Encourage Participation Involve employees early in the change process to gather input and address concerns. Encourage participation and create opportunities for employees to contribute to the change. 6. Provide Training and Support Identify training needs and provide the necessary resources and support to help employees adapt to the change. Offer workshops, tutorials, and on-the-job training as needed. 7. Monitor and Measure Progress Establish metrics and key performance indicators (KPIs) to track progress. Regularly review progress and make adjustments as needed to stay on track. 8. Address Resistance Understand the reasons behind resistance and address them proactively. Use empathy and active listening to understand concerns and provide support. 9. Celebrate Successes Recognize and celebrate milestones and achievements throughout the change process. Acknowledge the efforts of individuals and teams who contribute to the success of the change. 10. Ensure Sustainability Develop strategies to embed the change into the organization's culture and practices. Provide ongoing support and resources to ensure the change is sustained over time. 11. Conduct Post-Implementation Review After implementing the change, conduct a review to assess what went well and what could be improved. Gather feedback from stakeholders and use it to refine future change initiatives. 12. Adapt and Iterate Be flexible and willing to adjust the change plan based on feedback and evolving circumstances.  Continuously improve the change management process to increase effectiveness in future initiatives. Implementing these strategies can help manage change effectively, ensuring a smoother transition and greater acceptance from all involved parties.