River Training and Protection Works PDF

RIVER TRAINING AND PROTECTION WORKS CHAPTER-VIII RIVER TRAINING AND PROTECTION WORKS  7UDLQLQJSURWHFWLRQRIULYHUV The objective of river training/protection works is to prevent the river from damaging Railway formation, bridges and oth...

RIVER TRAINING AND PROTECTION WORKS CHAPTER-VIII RIVER TRAINING AND PROTECTION WORKS  7UDLQLQJSURWHFWLRQRIULYHUV The objective of river training/protection works is to prevent the river from damaging Railway formation, bridges and other structures. The training/protection works will have to be decided depending on the reach in which the river is situated namely: a) Upper reaches (Mountainous) b) Submontane reaches (Foot hills) c) Quasi-alluvial reaches (Trough)d) Alluvial reaches, ande) Tidal reaches  8SSHU5HDFKHV 0RXQWDLQRXV5LYHUV 1. Characteristics: These streams have narrow and deep cross section with very steep bed slopes. The gorge is often deep and narrow with formation of rapids. The discharge is extremely variable and their beds are interspersed with large size bed material consisting of rock, boulders, shingle and gravel. The rise of flood in them is very sudden and flashy. The water is heavily sediment laden, with high concentration of suspended load. 2. Suggested protective measures: The following protective measures are suggested/ recommended for adoption: a) Suitable protective fenders of concrete, rolled steel or rails may be provided upstream of the bridge to reduce the impact on piers and abutments due to rolling boulders down steep slopes. b) Measures for controlling soil erosion and landslips, improving stability of side slopes and arresting bed load in boulder bedded hilly terrains should be undertaken. c) The formation of gullies by the water coming down the hills can be prevented by afforestation, construction of gully/check dams, contour bunding, debris basins, chambers or wells. These should be cleaned as frequently as necessary. d) Stability of side slopes can be improved by provision of adequate drains, breast and toe walls etc. INDIAN RAILWAYS BRIDGE MANUAL 142 CHAPTER - 08  RIVER TRAINING AND PROTECTION WORKS e) Properly designed chutes with paved apron at the entrance with adequate free board may be used in Railway cutting for leading the water of mountainous streams down the hill slopes. Alternatively, suitably designed catch water drains on water-shed side may be constructed.  6XEPRQWDQH5HDFKHV )RRW+LOOV 1. Characteristics: The rivers in these regions have a flatter bed slopes generally from 1 in 50 to 1 in 500. The velocity and its sediment transporting capacity get reduced encouraging deposition of excess sediment load. Medium size boulders, gravel and coarse sand are generally found in the beds. The floods are of flashy nature. These streams are highly erosive and the erosion proceeds through grinding of bed load material during transport, formation of deep holes through whirlpools and plunging action along with cliffs forming the banks, in the higher reaches. These actions go on widening the bed and deepening the channel. The flow in the channel, except during highest stages, is insufficient to transport the detritus which gets deposited blocking the original channel; another channel may then be formed and in course of time the river bed may become a network of such channels with islands in between. Such streams are called "Braided" stream (Annexure 8/1). All these channels normally overflow during high floods and the river acquires very wide and shallow cross section. The rivers in this reach are prone to progressively raise their beds by sediment deposition. Such rivers are known as "Aggrading" type. In these cases, the over bank spills increase year after year, until occurrence of abnormal floods in a year, when sudden change of course may take place. 2 Suggested protective measures: It is not desirable to locate bridge in such reaches. However, if a bridge is to be provided, training measures in the form of marginal bunds, extending right up to the high ground in the hills are required to shift the point of aggradation downstream. To reduce the erosive action on the marginal bund a) Suitable slope protection with boulders or concrete slabs, b) Adequate toe protection in the form of two rows of in-situ concrete blocks or boulders in wire crates and, INDIAN RAILWAYS BRIDGE MANUAL 143 CHAPTER - 08  RIVER TRAINING AND PROTECTION WORKS c) Boulders in wire crates forming flexible type apron may be provided.  4XDVL$OOXYLDO5HDFKHV 7URXJK 1. Characteristics: In this reach, the bed slope varies from 1 in 500 to 1 in 2,500. The bed consists of small size gravel and medium sand. The channel has generally a well defined course. 2. Suggested protective Measures: Bridging such rivers normally involves constriction in width and provision of guide bunds. Assistance of specialised agency, undertaking hydraulic model studies may be availed of, as considered necessary.  $OOXYLDO5HDFKHV 1. Characteristics: In this reach, the river bed slope varies from 1 in 2,500 to 1 in 25,000. The river flows on an almost flat bed built by its alluvium. The alluvial river meanders as a whole within its “Khadir” (a strip of low land within which a river meanders and its flood rises. In terms of river hydrology, khadir is used to define extent or width of the river bed within which the river is likely to flow either during lean or flood season. Khadirs are generally bound by high and firm banks.Khadirs can be very wide say 6 to 8 km and areparticular to rivers in alluvium terrain). (Annexure 8/2). The main difference between the alluvial and quasi-alluvial rivers is that the former meanders as a whole within its “Khadir” while the later has well defined banks and it is only during periods of low water that the channels meander. Rivers in alluvial reaches are normally stable with no perceptible lowering or raising of the river bed in the course of the years. Shape, size and mobility are the most important characteristics of a meander for design and maintenance of railway bridges. They are described below (Annexure 8/2): LR = Length along maximum depth LR/LV = Tortuosity ratio LV = Valley length, W = Width of the channel R = Radius of bend, ML =Meander length MB = Meander Belt, Q = Angle of bend Meander shape can be circular/sinusoidal or parabolic and is INDIAN RAILWAYS BRIDGE MANUAL 144 CHAPTER - 08  RIVER TRAINING AND PROTECTION WORKS defined by tortuosity ratio. A tortuosity ratio of 1 describes a straight channel. A ratio of 5.5 is a limiting value when consecutive bends are likely to cut into one another. The meander size is defined by the ratio of the radius of center line of bend or a meander and surface width of the channel. Meander Size= R/W or MB/W Meander shape is the most efficient hydraulic flow under the given flow conditions. If the present channel flow condition becomes hydraulically less efficient, river is able to find a more efficient path i.e. an alternative channel known as cut-off. This can be a natural development by the river itself. Alternatively, it can be artificially developed by cutting a pilot channel. Depending upon the location of cut-off, it can be either a neck/loop cut-off or chute cut-off.Neck/loop cut-off occurs due to progressive bank erosion at the bend of acute bends, as shown in Annexure 8/2. This is more commonly occurring natural case of cut-off. A chute cut-off occurs at the flat of a meander and is less common as compared to neck cut-off. Immediately after a cut-off takes place, there are number of changes in the flow pattern both up and down stream of the cut-off. There is heavy erosion of banks and the new channel readjusts itself to the new alignment. There can be local deposits on the downstream side, where the cut-off channel meets the main channel. This however is removed in a season or two during succeeding floods. 2. Suggested protective Measures: The training of alluvial rivers is generally on the same lines with guide bund system as described for quasi-alluvial rivers. The meanders do not remain fixed but usually travel downstream. Every effort should be made to keep the river to its original course near the bridge. In some cases it is observed that the main current of the river starts flowing along the railway bank on the upstream side due to the meander travel downstream. The building of spurs along the railway embankment is not a good remedy, as it perpetuates the main channel along the Railway alignment. In such cases every effort should be made to divert the river to its original course. In some cases the construction of a second control point consisting of a spur about 0.4 times the meander length has been found to be satisfactory. The exact length and location of such works however, INDIAN RAILWAYS BRIDGE MANUAL 145 CHAPTER - 08  RIVER TRAINING AND PROTECTION WORKS should be determined through model studies in a hydraulic laboratory.  7LGDO5HDFKHV A river, whose flow changes periodically due to tides, is called tidal. Before joining the sea and before becoming a tidal river, it may branch off into several streams forming a delta. The last portion is called a delta river. Constriction of the water way is to be avoided in these reaches and tidal regime is to be kept in view, while designing bridges.  6RXWK,QGLDQ5LYHUV The river system in south India is geologically older and stable. Tendency for shifting of the river bed course and aggradation/degradation is insignificant. Problems of river training and protection normally do not arise except in the deltaic region/tidal reaches.  ,PSRUWDQWFRQVLGHUDWLRQVIRUK\GUDXOLFVWUXFWXUHV For hydraulic design, most important parameters are discharge gauge level/HFL, scour and physical layout of the channel. Parameters like discharge and bed slopes can vary and estimation of them is largely empirical. For important rivers, data required for computing flood discharge are generally available. The data may require proper interpolation or extrapolation. Discharge is also worked out on the basis of Gauge-Discharge curve. This is also a fairly reliable estimate. All bridges shall be designed with adequate waterway for design discharge. This shall normally be the computed flood with a probable recurrence interval of 50 years. However, at the discretion of Principal Chief Engineer/Chief Bridge Engineer, bridges, damage to which is likely to have severe consequences may be designed for floods with a probable recurrence interval of more than 50 years. The discharge should be known for design of pier as well as protection works. Discharge should also be known for the lean period, when construction will be undertaken. This will decide how temporary works should be designed to enable construction activities.It is for the lower discharge, when pitching of bank slopes fail. This is because of high surface velocity at lower discharge, when scour has not fully developed. INDIAN RAILWAYS BRIDGE MANUAL 146 CHAPTER - 08  RIVER TRAINING AND PROTECTION WORKS Scour data can be had from the evidence left behind the river for past discharge gauge. This requires careful survey and enquiry made from local people. Known water holes or sounding of some structures upstream can give very useful information. This needs to be verified by calculations either made by some empirical methods or by hydraulic model studies. Scour depth likely to be there for lower discharge during construction is very important data. This is necessary for designing temporary works required during construction.  5LYHU7UDLQLQJ:RUNV The necessity and suitability of River Training Works should be carefully assessed. For effective design of river training works, following useful details are to be collected: i) History of flow/channel Change of river course happens mainly due to meandering effect of the river. In case of meander, it is possible to know the maximum radius of curvature from which it should be possible to estimate the likely area of effect. Adequate studies and data keeping results in easier, cost effective and simpler designs of protection measures. ii) Addition of any hydraulic structure on the regime of the flow should be taken note of, both on upstream as well as on downstream. On downstream side, effects are rarely beyond 5 kms. Such changes may be in the form of additional spans/works provided by highways on upstream side. This may also be due to construction of barrage/dam/water storage structures. These are considered as Railway Affecting Works and may have significant impact on Railway bridge. iii) Shift in flow channel because of meander: This should be studied particularly with reference to acuteness of the meander given by tortuosity ratio. iv)Any large scale deforestation on upstream will cause heavy sediment load leading to change in flow pattern. The following types of river training works and bank protection measures are generally adopted on the Indian Railways: 1 Guide Bunds; 2 Spurs (Groynes); INDIAN RAILWAYS BRIDGE MANUAL 147 CHAPTER - 08  RIVER TRAINING AND PROTECTION WORKS 3 Marginal Bunds; 4 Closure Bunds; 5 Assisted Cut-offs; 6 Boulder Crates and 7 Sausage Crates.  *XLGH%XQGV 1. Necessity: Guide bunds are meant to confine and guide the river flow through the structure without causing damage to it and its approaches. They also prevent the out flanking of the structure. 2 Shape and Design Features: a) The guide bund can either be divergent upstream or parallel. In the case of divergent guide bund, there is possibility of formation of a shoal at the center. Parallel guide bunds minimise obliquity and separation of flow along the flanks. According to geometrical shape, the guide bunds may be straight or elliptical. In the case of certain type of alluvial rivers with sandy bed and meandering pattern, elliptical shape appears preferable to minimise obliquity and separation of flow. Various types of guide bunds are shown in Annexure 8/3. b) Normally the upstream shank of the guide bund is between 1.0 to 1.5 times the length of the bridge, while the downstream shank is between 0.25 to 0.4 times the length of the bridge. c) The tail bund on the downstream side is provided to afford an easy exit to the water and to prevent formation of vertical whirlpools or rollers which give rise to scour. These tail bunds are also curved at their ends and should be properly armoured. d) The guide bund is provided with a mole head on its upstream side. The mole head bears the brunt of the attack and should be provided with adequate protection in the form of slope pitching and properly designed launching apron. The shank i.e. the portion behind the curved mole head of the guide bund should also be similarly protected on the river side. The slope in the rear of the guide bund need not necessarily be provided with pitching and may be protected by planting grass or shrubs as found suitable. e) Radius of curved upstream mole head may be taken as INDIAN RAILWAYS BRIDGE MANUAL 148 CHAPTER - 08  RIVER TRAINING AND PROTECTION WORKS 0.45L (L is water way width determined from Lacey’s formula subject to minimum of 150m and maximum of 600m). The radius of downstream curved tail may be kept as 0.3 to 0.5 times the radius of upstream curved head. The angle of sweep of curved head may range from 120° to 145° according to river curvature and that of the tail head may be kept as 45° to 60°. For smaller rivers, one single radius is good enough. For important rivers, multi radii may be selected generally after model studies for smoother flows. f) Top width of the shank of the guide bund should be wide enough to permit plying of trucks and keeping reserve boulders for maintenance. From this consideration top width may be taken between 6m to 9m, and side slopes may be taken as 2:1. g) Side slopes of guide bund needs protection on following counts: i) Wave action on the upstream side ii) Water current along the slopes iii) Wind action iv) Rain cuts/Rain water Most common method is to provide stone pitching. It is necessary to provide 20cm to 30cm thick graded filter below the pitching. Stone used for pitching is generally man size boulder of 35 to 55kg so that they cannot be easily displaced by the current. For small works, one stone thick pitching (25 to 30cm) should suffice. Gaps in between could be filled up by smaller pieces. In case of guide bund, the pitching should continue right up to the top of the formation for the river side, including the curved head on both sides and tail head. For important rivers or in case of large ponding etc, the pitching should be done on the rear side of the guide bund also. For approach embankment, on the upstream side, the pitching should continue up to the free board level which should be determined not only on HFL but also to take care of velocity head 2 (V /2g), wave action etc. For the downstream side, pitching may be done up to the water level based on hydraulic model study or general water level observed. A good drainage is key for protection of slopes from rain cuts, particularly on high banks of over 6m height. For this, longitudinal and cross drains shouldbe provided. INDIAN RAILWAYS BRIDGE MANUAL 149 CHAPTER - 08  RIVER TRAINING AND PROTECTION WORKS Guide bunds and approach embankments particularly in khadir of the river must be constructed in one go in one season. In case this is not possible, at least, a wedge size equal to angle of internal friction of the old construction should be removed and the next construction should be done with proper benching. For slope protection and apron, an overlap may be provided. h) No spurs projecting from the guide bunds should, in any case, be provided. j) For design and construction of guide bunds/launching aprons reference may be made to IS: 10751-1994 (Planning and Design of Guide Banks for Alluvial Rivers – Guidelines) and IRC: 89-1997 (Guidelines for Design and Construction of River Training and Control Works for Road Bridges). k) A typical lay out of a guide bund is shown in Annexure 8/4. 3. Apron Protection for guide bunds: a) Apron is provided beyond the toe of the slope of the guide bund, so that when bed is scoured, the scoured face will be protected by launching of the apron stone or wire crate containing stone. b) Following are the important details for design of apron: i) Thickness of apron Thickness of apron is governed by thickness of pitching on the slopes of the guide bund (T). In case of straight portion of guide bund, the thickness of apron through its width is generally kept as 1.5T. In case of curved portion of guide bund, the thickness of apron is generally kept as 1.5T at the junction of apron with pitching on the slope and the same is increased through its width to 2.25T at the end of apron. ii) Level at which the apron is to be laid Normally apron should be laid on dry bed, as low as possible. iii) Width of apron Width of apron is determined by depth of scour and is generally kept as 1.5 times the difference between the deepest known scour level and low water level. INDIAN RAILWAYS BRIDGE MANUAL 150 CHAPTER - 08  RIVER TRAINING AND PROTECTION WORKS 4. Maintenance: a) Substantial reserve of pitching stone should be maintained on the guide bund for use during emergency. This should be stacked at the top of the guide bund. Quantity of reserve stock to be maintained at guide bund should also be specified by Principal Chief Engineer/Chief Bridge Engineer as per provisions of Para 709(1). b) The track on the guide bund, where provided, should be maintained in a satisfactory condition and should be capable of taking boulder trains at any time. The Permanent Way Inspector and the Assistant Engineer should inspect the track soon after the monsoon every year and carry out necessary repairs well before the next monsoon. c) Every effort should be made to ascertain whether the apron is launching to the intended position and this should be done by probing after the flood season is over. Plotting of the levels will indicate the efficacy of the launching. d) Disturbance of pitching stone on the slope indicates dangerous condition and additional stones should be placed in position immediately as necessary. 5. Failures and remedial measures: The conditions under which an apron of the guide bund can fail and remedial measures to be adopted are stated below: a) If the launching takes place beyond the capacity of the stone in the apron and results in leaving the bank material exposed to the current and wave action, more stone will have to be added to the apron. b) If stones are carried away by high velocity current from the launching apron and the toe of the bund, the apron should be strengthened against severe attack by laying large sized stones at the outer edge of the apron. c) If slips and blow-outs in the bund occur due to a steep sub soil water gradient resulting from a rapidly falling flood in the river, the bank should be widened to reduce the hydraulic gradient. This equally applies to marginal bunds. d) Wherever disturbance is noticed in rear of guide bund due to wave lash or other causes, the slope pitching should be adopted as a remedial measure. INDIAN RAILWAYS BRIDGE MANUAL 151 CHAPTER - 08  RIVER TRAINING AND PROTECTION WORKS e) An apron can launch satisfactorily only if the material scours easily and evenly and the angle of repose of the underlying material is not steeper than that of the stone. In all these cases action should be taken to dump the boulders on the toe of the bank and make up irregular surface.  6SXUV *UR\QHV 1 A spur/groyne is a structure constructed transverse to the river flow and isprojected form the bank into the river. 2 Type of spurs /groynes: i) They may be either “Permeable” or “Impermeable”. Permeable spurs are constructed by driving wooden bullies or bamboos, filled in with brush wood, with sarkanda mattresses or other suitable material. These are helpful in causing quick siltation due to damping of velocity. They are useful when flood velocities are relatively lower and concentration of suspended sediment load is heavy.They allow water to pass through. Permeable structures are discussed in detail in Para 811(5). Impermeable spurs are made of solid core, constructed of stones or earth and stones with exposed faces protected by pitching. These spurs can withstand severe attack better than permeable spurs. ii) Spurs may be classified as (a) repelling (deflecting) (b) attracting and (c) normal (sedimenting). Repelling (deflecting) spurs are those which incline upstream at an angle of 60 degree to 70 degree to the river course and deflect the current towards the opposite bank. They cause silting in still water on the upstream pocket. Attracting spurs incline downstream and make the deep channel flow continuously along their noses. They cause scour just on the downstream side of the head due to turbulence. The river flow is attracted towards the spur. Normal (sedimenting) spurs are those which are built at right angles to the bank to keep the stream in a particular position and promote silting between the spurs. They have practically no effect on the diversion of the current and are mostly used for training of rivers for navigational purposes. iii) Spurs are also classified as full height spurs and part height spurs. Where top level is higher than HFL, it is called a full height spur. iv) Spurs are also constructed extending into the stream with a “T” head or hockey stick shaped head, properly armoured to hold the INDIAN RAILWAYS BRIDGE MANUAL 152 CHAPTER - 08  RIVER TRAINING AND PROTECTION WORKS river at a distance. A series of such spurs/groynes correctly positioned can hold the river at a position away from the point intended to be protected. The edge of the "T” head should be curved somewhat in the manner of a guide bund to avoid swirls. Sketches of the various types of spurs may be seen in Annexure 8/5. 3. Location and salient features of a spur/groyne: i) The space between spurs or groynes generally bears a definite ratio to their length. The common practice is to keep the spacing at about 2 to 2.5 times the length so as to effectively protect the bank. ii) If designed as a full height spur, care should be taken to see that spurs are built sufficiently high so that they are not overtopped and out flanked by the current during high floods. Free board of 1 meter is provided. iii) The side slopes of spurs are generally 2:1. iv) The spurs should be anchored on to high ground. v) The head of the spur is most vulnerable point for scour and should be well protected on slopes by pitching and at toe by an apron designed for scour depth of 2.5 to 2.75 times DLacey at the mole head. For computation of DLacey, Clause 4.6 of ‘IRS Code of Practice for the Design of Substructures and Foundations of Bridges’ may be referred. vi) Spurs should never be constructed at a point where severe attack is taking place but at some distance upstream. vii) Spurs/groynes should be used only insituation where they are absolutely necessary. viii) The design of spurs may be finalised preferably through hydraulic model studies. ix) For design and construction of groynes (spurs)/launching aprons reference may be made to IS:8408-1994 (Planning and Design of Groynes in Alluvial Rivers – Guidelines) and IRC:89-1997 (Guidelines for Design and Construction of River Training and Control Works for Road Bridges). 4. Maintenance of spurs/ Groynes: In all cases, satisfactory arrangement should be made for the maintenance of spurs/groynes by providing access to them during all INDIAN RAILWAYS BRIDGE MANUAL 153 CHAPTER - 08  RIVER TRAINING AND PROTECTION WORKS seasons of the year and keeping boulders as reserve. The maintenance procedures specified for guide bunds apply equally to spurs/groynes also. 5.Permeable Structures: a)Permeable structures can be used either independently or with the support of other impermeable stone structures or river training and bank protection measures. These structures are easy to construct, use low cost locally available material and require limited skill in construction. These are very handy in anti-erosion works during emergencies in floods. These structures can also be used in areas where good quality stones are costly and/or not available. Thus permeable structures are cost effective alternative to the river training or anti-erosion works with impermeable spurs. Depending upon the purpose to serve, the permeable structures are constructed transverse or parallel to the direction of flow. Permeable structures serve one or more of the following functions: i) Training the river along a desired course. ii)Reducing the intensity of flow at the point of river attack. iii)Creating a slack flow to induce siltation in the vicinity of the permeable structures and in the downstream reach. iv)Providing protection to the bank by dampening the velocity of flow along the bank. b)The permeable structures can be classified as follows: i) According to function served, namely, diverting and dampening, sedimenting. ii)According to the method and material of construction, namely, bally, bamboo, tree and willow structures. iii)According to the conditions encountered, namely, submerged and non-submerged. iv)According to the type of structure provided, namely, spur type, screen type or dampeners (revetment) type. c) The permeable structures are made up of different types of smaller units called elements. Many elements, made up of bamboos, ballies, RCC poles etc. are arranged in specific pattern and linked together to form a permeable structure. Different types of elements used for making permeable structures are as following: INDIAN RAILWAYS BRIDGE MANUAL 154 CHAPTER - 08  RIVER TRAINING AND PROTECTION WORKS i) Porcupines –Porcupines are typically made up of bamboos/ballies, have cubical/prism shaped box at the central portion with their legs extending in all directions. The overall size is 2m to 3m. The central box is filled with stones for stability of individual unit during floods. (Annexure-8/6 (a&b)). ii) Cribs – This is a pyramid type of structure made up of bamboos/ballies with a box at the bottom for holding stones for stability during floods. Size of the box is generally square of size 2m to 2.5m at the bottom. Total height of the structure is 3m to 4m. (Annexure-8/6 (c)). iii) Bally frames -Permeable bally structures are made up of main skeleton of large bamboos or ballies. Cross ballies are used for stability of the structure. iv) Tree branches – Branches of trees or trees of short height are hanged from a wire rope duly weighted with stones and are aligned as a spur projecting into the river. The wire rope is duly anchored on the bank and in the riverbed. d) The main criteria for the selection of the material are cost and easy/local availability. Standard, commercially available bamboos of girth 20cm to 30cm are used for the porcupines and cribs. Smaller girth of 20cm to 25cm is used for bracings. Standard, commercially available ballies of girth 15cm to 25cm are used for the bally structures. Normally, the larger girth of 20cm to 25cm is used for the main members, whereas, the smaller girth of 15cm to 20cm is used for bracings. Generally, 4 to 5 strands of 4mm GI wire are used for interconnecting porcupines, cribs, and anchor them to the ground. Ballies driven into the ground upto a depth of 2m are treated as anchor. Concrete anchors have an anchor rod of size 32-36mm, well embedded in concrete cube. Wire crate anchors are of size 1.5m x 1.5m x1.5m, made up of thick wires and filled with stones or bricks. A concrete block is casted with bolt and is included in the wire crate anchor. In case of emergencies, tie wires are joined directly to the wires of the crates. e)In case of shallow water flows and upto maximum depth of flow 3m to 4m, porcupines are used for both spurs and screens. For maximum depths of flow from 4m to 6m, cribs are preferred. For the depths beyond these limits, bally spurs are preferred. INDIAN RAILWAYS BRIDGE MANUAL 155 CHAPTER - 08  RIVER TRAINING AND PROTECTION WORKS f)Permeable structures commonly used are spurs, dampeners and screens. i) Spurs are generally made up of 3 to 4 rows of porcupines or 4 to 6 rows of cribs. Schematic sketch of typical permeable spur is shown in Annexure-8/6(d). On a straight reach, permeable spurs are normally spaced at 3 to 4 times its length. On a curved channel, depending upon the obliquity of flow, the spurs are normally spaced at 2 to 3 times the length. Projection of the spurs into the river channel is normally 11% to 15% of width of channel. Three spurs are normally provided for a specific reach to be protected. A single permeable spur is generally not found effective. Alignment of spurs is kept pointing towards upstream. ii) For depth of flow up to 3m, two rows of porcupines are laid along the banks on either side at the toe as dampeners. For more depth, numbers of rows are increased. iii) Permeable screens are used for choking the secondary channels. 4 to 6 rows of porcupines or 6 to 9 rows of cribs are normally used in a permeable screen. One screen is normally provided at the entrance of the bypass or secondary channel. The second screen is provided at a distance of 1 to 1.5 times width of the screen and is extended on both the banks for a length one third of the channel width. g) Due to inherent weakness of the elements, the counter weights are provided in the central box of the porcupines or in the bottom tray of the cribs. Due care is necessary to tie the weights to the main body of the elements. The elements are tied to each other by wire ropes. The tie ropes are duly anchored to the bank and at the nose with the help of suitable anchor or anchor blocks. Intermediate anchors are also provided at an interval of 15m to 20m along the length of the structures on the upstream side. h) No bed protection is needed for the structures made up of porcupines and cribs. Sinking of these structures into riverbed is a welcome feature, which adds up to the stability during floods resulting in better performance.  0DUJLQDO%XQGV Marginal bunds are provided to contain the spread of the river when the river in flood spills over its banks upstream of the bridge site over wide area and likely to spill in the neighbouring water INDIAN RAILWAYS BRIDGE MANUAL 156 CHAPTER - 08  RIVER TRAINING AND PROTECTION WORKS courses or cause other damages. The marginal bund should normally be built well away from the active area of the river. The slope should be well protected by turfing. Where a marginal bund has to be built in the active area of the river, it should be protected with pitching and apron. The earth for the construction of marginal bund should preferably be obtained from the river side. The upper end of the marginal bund should be anchored into high ground well above HFL. Marginal bunds should be inspected every year along with the annual bridge inspection and necessary repairs should be carried out before the onset of monsoon. Cattle crossing and rodent holes across the marginal bund should be specially watched and deficiencies made good.  &ORVXUH%XQGV Sometimes it may be necessary to entirely block one or more channels of the river in order to prevent the discharge of such channels developing into a main river channel after the construction of the bridge. This is done by providing a closure bund. The bund is designed as an earthen dam. The same is generally constructed at some distance from the Railway line. Special care should be exercised to guard it against its failure. It should be inspected every year after the monsoon and necessary repairs carried out.  $VVLVWHG$UWLILFLDO&XW2IIV Sometimes when very heavy meandering develops near bridges and there is a danger of its encroaching too heavily into the still water area or otherwise dangerously approaching the Railway embankment, it becomes necessary to dig a cut-off channel which will ultimately develop and help in the diversion of water through it. To effect economy, a pilot channel cut is usually made when there is low flow in the river and full development of the channel takes place during the flood. This cut-off channel should preferably have (i) at least three times the river’s straight regime slope and (ii) the upstream end should take off from where the bed load of main channel has less than the average amount of coarse material i.e. from the active part of the channel where the velocity is more. The entrance to the pilot cut should be bell shaped to facilitate entry of water. The chord loop ratio should normally be greater than 1 to 5 if a successful channel is to develop. Cut off should be planned with care taking all relevant factors into account (Annexure 8/2). INDIAN RAILWAYS BRIDGE MANUAL 157 CHAPTER - 08  RIVER TRAINING AND PROTECTION WORKS  %RXOGHU&UDWHV Boulder crates are formed by filling boulders in a crate made of hot dip galvanized wire. Wires of 4 SWG and 6 SWG are generally used in important and ordinary works respectively. The size of crate is dependent on the discharge and should be such that crate is not lifted by water flow. In case of apron, the size of stone required to resist mean design velocity (average velocity) is assessed by the following formula as per IRC: 89-1997 (Guidelines for Design and Construction of River Training and Control Works for Road Bridges): 1/2 V=4.893d Where, V= mean design velocity in meter/sec. d= equivalent diameter of stone in meter. The weight of stone can be determined by assuming spherical stones having a specific gravity of 2.65 (average). Where requirement of weight is more on account of higher mean velocity, crated boulder provides practically feasible option. Size of crates can be determined based on above considerations.  6DXVDJH&UDWHV These are crated boulder of circular cross section of diameter varying from 600mm to 900mm. They are usually very good for protecting slope of an embankment.  3URWHFWLRQRI$SSURDFK%DQNV 1. Approach banks of bridges may be subjected to severe attack under the following conditions: i) When the HFL at the bridge is very high and there is spill beyond the normal flow channel. ii) When the stream meets a main river just downstream of the bridge. iii) In the case of bridges with insufficient water way. iv) The wave action on the approach bank of bridges situated in a lake/large tank bed may have a detrimental effect. In all the above cases the pitching of the approach bank up to HFL with sufficient free board is an effective solution. Provision of toe wall and narrow apron in some cases will also be useful. INDIAN RAILWAYS BRIDGE MANUAL 158 CHAPTER - 08  RIVER TRAINING AND PROTECTION WORKS 2. If deep borrow pits are dug near the toe of approach banks, the water flows through these pits and forms a gradually deepening water course which may eventually threaten the safety of the approach bank. In this case it will be useful to put rubble “T” spurs across the flow to reduce the velocity and expedite silting of the course. 3. Whenever the water level on either side of an approach bank is different, there may be seepage of water and to ease the hydraulic gradient, widening of banks, provision of sub banks and toe filters etc may be resorted to. 4. At locations with standing water against the embankment, special watch should be kept when the water level recedes rapidly and when slips are likely to occur.  'HVLJQIRU3URWHFWLRQ:RUNV 0LQRU%ULGJHV Most of minor bridges are on open foundation. They have to be properly protected by a well designed flooring system. This will include floor, curtain and drop wall. Length of floor and depth of drop wall will be on the basis of scour depth. This can be determined either by local observation or by using empirical value of DLacey based on design discharge. Depth of drop wall should be 1.25times DLacey. Floor should cover the entire width and length of abutment including wing wall. The slope of floor should match the bed slope and also the top of drop wall should match the slope. It is essential to do proper protection of the box culvert which relies on uniform ground support for its designed structural behavior. If the underside is scoured, the box culvert gets unevenly supported. For this purpose, properly designed floor system as described above should be provided. Sometimes, instead of splayed wing wall, straight return wall is provided particularly on high bank or in case of a box, another box is provided to function like a wing wall. Similar protection work is called for in such cases. 0DMRU,PSRUWDQW%ULGJHV As far as bridges on open foundations are concerned, it is generally on rocky/in-erodible bed and not requiring any particular protection. In other cases, flooring with drop walls as in minor bridges may have to be provided. Since well and pile foundations are designed for the scour, hence no protection is necessary even in INDIAN RAILWAYS BRIDGE MANUAL 159 CHAPTER - 08  RIVER TRAINING AND PROTECTION WORKS case of a local scour. However, bridge may need a well designed guide bund with proper protection on the approach embankments. 5LYHUWUDLQLQJZRUNVWKURXJKPRGHOVWXGLHV In case of large alluvial river, where training/ protection works involve a heavy financial outlay, model studies should be resorted to, to arrive at the most economical and effective solution. $&6GWG  INDIAN RAILWAYS BRIDGE MANUAL 160 CHAPTER - 08