Brehe's Grammar Anatomy PDF

GALILEO, University System of Georgia GALILEO Open Learning Materials English Open Textbooks English Spring 2019 Brehe's Grammar Anatomy Steven Brehe University of North Georgia, [email protected] Follow this and additional works at: https://oer.galileo.usg.edu/english-textbooks Part of the English Language and Literature Commons Recommended Citation Brehe, Steven, "Brehe's Grammar Anatomy" (2019). English Open Textbooks. 20. https://oer.galileo.usg.edu/english-textbooks/20 This Open Textbook is brought to you for free and open access by the English at GALILEO Open Learning Materials. It has been accepted for inclusion in English Open Textbooks by an authorized administrator of GALILEO Open Learning Materials. For more information, please contact [email protected]. Brehe’s R A M M A GAnatomy R STEVEN BREHE Blue Ridge | Cumming | Dahlonega | Gainesville | Oconee Brehe’s Grammar Anatomy is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution- ShareAlike 4.0 International License. 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If you are the copyright owner of images in this book and you have not authorized the use of your work under these terms, please contact the University of North Georgia Press at [email protected] to have the content removed. ISBN: 978-1-940771-49-6 Produced by: University System of Georgia Published by: University of North Georgia Press Dahlonega, Georgia Cover Design and Layout Design: Corey Parson For more information, please visit http://ung.edu/university-press Or email [email protected] Table of Contents Introduction: Grammar? What Grammar? v 1 Together Forever: Subjects and Predicates 1 2 The Indispensables: Nouns and Verbs 6 3 Get Tense: Verb Tense, Principal Parts, and Irregular Verbs 16 4 Tall, Dark, and Wordsome: Adjectives 30 5 Inevitably, Adverbs 41 6 Among the Prepositions 52 7 You and I and the Personal Pronouns 65 8 You Did What? Verbs and Their Complements 81 9 All Together Now: Conjunctions, Compounds, and Subordinate Clauses 91 10 Sentencing Guidelines: Building Sentences with Clauses 113 11 Relative Clauses, Which We Need 126 12 I Know That You Know What They Are: Nominal Clauses 140 13 They’re So Dependent: Distinguishing Dependent Clauses 147 14 What, More? Verbs and Voice, Infinitives, and Passive Complements 158 15 They’re So Common: More on Nouns 168 16 Zowie! Interjections and the Eight Parts of Speech 179 17 Those Verbing Verbals: Gerunds and Participles 185 18 To Boldly Verb: Infinitives 197 19 What’s That? More Pronouns 212 20 Many Things (But no Cabbages or Kings) 221 21 Keeping Those Little Puncs in Line: A Brief Review of Punctuation 233 Answer Key 251 Glossary 316 Index 338 Introduction Grammar? What Grammar? When we speak or write, or listen or read, we create sentences with words and phrases. Grammar is the system of rules that guide us as we make and comprehend the sentences of others. All languages have some kind of grammar. When we use the word grammar in the sense discussed here, that “system of rules” does not necessarily include rules like “Never end a sentence with a preposition,” or “Don’t dangle your participle around here, bub.” That kind of rule may often be helpful, but it’s not what this book is generally about. So what rules are we talking about here? To begin with an example, we might say this: On Tuesday, Devlin caught Alicia in the wine cellar. Or I could say this: On Tuesday, Alicia caught Devlin in the wine cellar. (On Tuesday, Alicia and Devlin had more fun than I’ve had all year.) But the point is this: Those two sentences contain exactly the same words. The only difference is the placement of Devlin and vi | Brehe’s Grammar Anatomy Alicia, and that difference alters the meaning of the sentence considerably. Sometimes we can move words around without changing the meaning at all: Alicia and Devlin are characters in Hitchcock’s film Notorious. Devlin and Alicia are characters in Hitchcock’s film Notorious. If we put some words in a certain order, it makes one meaning, and we change the meaning when we rearrange certain words. Other changes don’t alter the meaning at all. Those are some of the things we mean by the rules of grammar: Certain word orders and changes are meaningful in certain ways and others aren’t. Here’s another example. Suppose we alter the sentence this way: Tuesday on caught cellar Alicia Devlin wine the in. (If you talk like that, you’re spending too much time in the wine cellar.) In this example, we’ve used the same words but arranged them haphazardly, and with that order, the words make no meaning at all. That’s what happens when you break too many grammar rules. There are still other kinds of rules: He caught her in the wine cellar. She caught him in the wine cellar. (Just where is this wine cellar and how do I get there?) We know, as speakers of English, that he and him both refer to Devlin, and she and her refer to Alicia. So why do we have to use different words? Why not use he and she in both sentences, and forget about him and her? We can’t, because the rules of English say so: We have to use one form—one inflection—of he and she if they appear before Introduction: Grammar? What Grammar? | vii caught, and another inflection (him and her) if they appear after caught. If you’ve spoken English all your life, you already know that rule, even if no one ever taught it to you. You learned it intuitively when you were very young—that is, you learned it simply by listen- ing to other English speakers—and now you seldom have to stop and think about when to use he and when to use him. But a speaker who is just learning English may have to study and practice rules like that. At this point, we should stress that, for beginning students of English as a second language, there are definitely more helpful books than this one. For you, this book may not be the best starting place. Here we will assume that our reader has an intuitive under- standing of many such rules of English. We’ll often refer to them, because they’re helpful in learning about other matters of English grammar. BUT WHY? WHY? Understanding the basics of English grammar is helpful when- ever we study language. When we’re learning to become better writers, for instance, we have to discuss language, and that re- quires some knowledge of the terms and concepts of sentence structure—that is, of grammar. For example, we may discuss improving something we wrote by rewriting a passive sentence as an active sentence. But discuss- ing that improvement—and making it—means we need to recognize a passive verb and know how to change it into an active verb, and then make all the related changes in the sentence. The terms and concepts you learn in English grammar apply to other languages, too. Many of the grammatical concepts of English apply to other European languages, and some apply to non- European languages as well. That means that English speakers can use grammatical terms and concepts they already know to help viii | Brehe’s Grammar Anatomy them learn a new language. For example, it’s easier for English speakers to learn about direct and indirect objects in German if they already understand these concepts in English. Any time we want to learn about language or discuss it, basic grammatical terms and concepts are likely to be useful. We encounter those terms and concepts in dictionaries and other reference works; we encounter them in books on linguistics and psychology. So why study grammar? To become a better writer? To learn a new language? To study linguistics? To become an English teacher? To use a dictionary more effectively? If you want to do any of these things, you’ll find a basic knowledge of grammar helpful. SENTENCING GUIDELINES The simple declarative sentence is the usual basis of all grammatical study. Other kinds of sentences are important, but we begin with declaratives. A declarative sentence doesn’t ask a question or give an or- der. It simply makes a statement, an assertion. All of the following sentences are examples of declarative sentences: Mr. Morton lives in our neighborhood. Mr. Morton is a pest. I like Mr. Morton. High Street takes you out to the city park. The old train station stands on Front Street, by the river. In the chapters that follow, we’ll primarily focus on declarative sentences. But what is a sentence? One common definition—one you may have heard before—goes like this: Introduction: Grammar? What Grammar? | ix A sentence is a unit of language that contains a subject and a predicate and expresses a complete idea. Audiences of professional linguists, when presented with this definition, hiss, boo, and throw vine-ripened tomatoes. (They’re an unruly lot.) They raise plenty of objections about it too, espe- cially concerning the vague notion of “a complete idea.” But we often encounter this definition in introductory grammar courses because it doesn’t require students to know many grammatical terms or concepts. For the time being, we’ll settle for this familiar definition. But hold your fire; we’ll return to the task of defining the sentence later, after we’ve learned a bit more. (And we will explain subjects and predicates in the first chapter.) WHAT KIND OF GRAMMAR? There are various approaches to grammar. For example, you may have heard of the approach called generative grammar (or sometimes transformational-generative grammar), associated with the linguist Noam Chomsky. That is an important and influ- ential approach to language, but not one that we’ll discuss in this course. You may encounter it, however, in books on linguistics, where you’ll also encounter many of the terms discussed here. The approach in this book is sometimes called traditional grammar or classroom grammar because it is often used in English and modern language classrooms, where it has long been taught. (Grammar is always taught long and never short. Suck it up.) WHAT YOU SHOULD DO OR WHAT YOU DO DO? Approaches to grammar can also be classified as prescriptive or descriptive. x | Brehe’s Grammar Anatomy Putting it simply, prescriptive grammar tells students how they should speak and write to communicate in the standard dialect of their language, the variety of English used by educated speakers. Descriptive grammar describes the ways language is actu- ally used, even by speakers of non-standard dialects. Descriptive grammar seldom makes explicit judgments about what is right or wrong in a sentence. Like many approaches to grammar, the approach in the following chapters is to some extent a combination of the prescriptive and descriptive. This book describes the grammar of Standard American English—the variety educated Americans usually speak and write in professional situations—and so this book implicitly (and sometimes explicitly) prescribes standard uses over others. But much of what we’ll learn here applies to any variety of English. Every language has its own internal logic, however inconsistent it may sometimes be. Learn a few premises, usually simple ones, concerning things like word order, or number, case, and tense, and you’ll understand something of the logic of a language, even if you don’t yet know all the cases and tenses. You’ll see that many features of English grammar are clearly and simply logical. And some aren’t. (And some aren’t even trying.) HOW MUCH GRAMMAR? This is an introductory book: It gives you the most basic, the most frequently used terms and concepts of English grammar. By comparison, A Comprehensive Grammar of the English Language (by Quirk, Greenbaum, and others) is 1792 pages long. The Cambridge Grammar of the English Language (by Pullum, Huddleston, and others) is 1860 pages long. This book is nowhere near as complete, or as long. (You’re welcome.) Introduction: Grammar? What Grammar? | xi But even a basic book like this one offers challenges. This book contains roughly 200 grammatical terms, some that you may have encountered before, and others that may be new to you. The workings of English (or any other language) is a vast topic. Even an introductory text, if it aims to give you a good start, will cover a good deal of territory. That’s why it’s important to know about— and use—the resources available in this book. USING THIS BOOK One way to get a good grasp of what you learn here is to do the exercises at the end of each chapter and check your work by looking up the answers in the back of this book. If you make mistakes, reexamine the exercises you missed until you understand your mistake. Don’t write the answers in your text—that way, you can return to the chapter and use the exercises again for review and practice. When you don’t remember what a particular term means, you can always find out by using the index or by consulting the glossary in the back of the book, which will also refer you to the relevant chapter. As we’ll remind you again and again, having a dictionary handy is important when you’re studying English grammar (or any language for that matter). Dictionaries can help you figure out if a particular word is an adverb or a preposition or a conjunction, or the right form of a verb or plural noun. Good online dictionaries make looking up words fast and easy, and they have the kinds of grammatical information you’ll sometimes need. Here are some online dictionaries you could consult: www.merriam-webster.com www.dictionary.com xii | Brehe’s Grammar Anatomy www.ahdictionary.com (the online American Heritage Dictionary) The online Oxford English Dictionary, the massive historical dictionary, is a wonderful resource, but it may overwhelm you with the sheer quantity and range of its information. We’d recommend that you do not refer to it as you begin to learn about grammar. (But it’s still fun to browse through.) And now we’ll find out more about those declarative sentences; on to Chapter 1. 1 Together Forever Subjects and Predicates We’ll begin with declarative sentences, sentences that make a statement instead of asking questions or giving orders. All of the examples you’ll see in the next several chapters are declarative sentences. As we begin, it’s helpful to know that declarative sentences in English usually follow this basic pattern: Subject + Predicate The subject comes first, and the predicate follows—usually. IT’S ALL ABOUT THE SUBJECT The subject is the star, the prima donna, of the sentence. It’s the part of the sentence that names who or what the sentence is about. The predicate always tells us something about the subject. Usually, the predicate tells us what the subject is doing (or has done), or it describes the subject. These very simple sentences follow the simple Subject + Predicate pattern: 2 | Brehe’s Grammar Anatomy Subject + Predicate Alice fell. The cat smiled. Carroll wrote. Julie sang. Fish swim. Birds fly. Hammerstein composed. As these sentences illustrate, the subject and the predicate can each be only one word, so it’s possible to write a complete declarative sentence in just two words. (We cheated with The cat smiled.) In longer sentences, which we’ll see shortly, identifying the subjects and predicates of sentences becomes easy with practice. THE SIMPLE AND THE COMPLETE Every simple declarative sentence that we’ve seen contains a subject and a predicate, and the subject usually appears to the left of the predicate, at the beginning of the sentence or near it. In these cases, the complete subject and the complete predicate are each just one word long. There’s one exception: The cat. We can add more words to those subjects and predicates. We can add modifiers, words that describe the subject and the predicate: Birds fly. Most birds in the United States fly well. In this longer sentence, we call birds the simple subject and fly the simple predicate. We call Most birds in the United States the complete subject, and we call fly well the complete predicate. That is, the simple subject and all its modifiers make up the complete subject. And the Together Forever: Subjects and Predicates | 3 simple predicate with all its modifiers is the complete predicate. So, in Birds fly, the simple subject and the complete subject are identical, and so are the simple and complete predicates. Here are more examples, with the simple subjects and predicates in boldface: A beautiful day like today comes too seldom. Mary’s cat ran away yesterday. As the examples above show, some modifiers appear immedi- ately before the word they modify: A, beautiful, Mary’s, too. But some modifiers can appear afterward, too: like today, seldom, away, yesterday. In the next examples, we begin with the sentence Irises grow. In each example, the simple subject and predicate are in bold; the complete predicate is underlined; and the rest of the sentence (the part not underlined) is the complete subject: Irises grow. Sometimes irises grow well near the garage. In the spring irises grow well in our garden. Here again, some modifiers of grow appear immediately before or after the word they modify: well, near the garage, in our garden. And some modifiers of the predicate can even appear at some distance from grow: Sometimes, In the spring. Here are some more pairs of sentences, with the simple subject and the simple predicate in bold type and the complete predicate underlined: Many birds in the U. S. fly south in the winter. In the winter, many birds in the U. S. fly south. Oscar Hammerstein composed rapidly in the winter of 1927. In the winter of 1927, Oscar Hammerstein composed rapidly. 4 | Brehe’s Grammar Anatomy As you see in the second sentence of each pair, parts of the complete predicate can appear before the subject. This is a common sentence pattern, and we’ll have more to say about it in later chapters. TRANSPOSED ORDER In some sentences, it’s possible to put the entire predicate before the subject; this is called transposed order (also known as inverted order). In the following sentences, the simple subjects and predicates are in bold type, and the complete predicate is underlined: Softly fell the rain. Gently came the dawn. Into the quiet village roared the steam locomotive. Use transposed order with restraint, or it can become just a way of showing off with words. In the next few chapters, we’ll learn more about subjects, predicates, and modifiers. EXERCISES Answers to these exercises are in the back of the book. After you answer one set, check your answers before you go on—sometimes the answers will help you with the next set. 1a. Write the definitions of the simple subject and the simple predicate. 1b. In the following sentences, identify the simple subject and the simple predicate. To help you, the complete predicate is underlined. Together Forever: Subjects and Predicates | 5 1. Rain falls. 2. Edward knocked at the door. 3. In the morning, the family ate on the porch. 4. In the morning, pancakes seemed like a good idea. 5. Into the night, into the darkness, recklessly rode Rudolpho. 1c. You’ll get no help with these! Once again, identify the simple subject and the simple predicate. Then identify the complete subject and the complete predicate. 1. Wendell behaved politely. 2. Tonight that nice family ate on the porch again. 3. Backward ran sentences. [Modified from Wolcott Gibbs.] 4. In the spring, the calla lilies were in bloom again. 5. This morning Rudolpho was waiting on the porch for breakfast. 2 The Indispensables Nouns and Verbs Nouns and verbs are two of the most basic and important concepts in grammar. SUBJECTS AND NOUNS In the sentences we’ve seen, the simple subjects are all nouns. This traditional definition of nouns will serve our purpose: A noun is a word that names a person, place, thing, or idea. Nouns name persons: man, woman, child, children, student, teacher, Mr. Morton, Oscar Hammerstein. They name places: kitchen, home, Main Street, St. Louis, Missouri, U.S.A., North America, Earth, solar system, the Milky Way. They name things: pen, ink, paper, printing press, telegraph, linotype, typewriter, computer, smart phone, internet. Nouns also name ideas—that, is, abstractions: science, mathe- matics, truth, beauty, democracy, Platonism, Catholicism, Calvinism. Most simple subjects are nouns. The Indispensables: Nouns and Verbs | 7 PREDICATES AND VERBS In any sentence, the simple predicate is a verb—an indispens- able part of English sentences. For our purposes, this definition will do: A verb is a word or group of words that names an action or indicates a state of being. There are two general classes of verb. One kind of verb—an action verb—names actions: Hammerstein composed. George loves Ethel. Pearl painted Mr. Morton’s porch. Another kind of verb names “states of being”—that is, they appear in predicates that describe the subject. These verbs are called linking verbs. Gershwin was a composer. George became thoughtful. Pearl seems busy. There are thousands of verbs in English, and the great majority of them are action verbs: sit, stand, hit, run, hide, seek, say, sing, create, declare, denounce, pontificate, shout, cry, laugh, and all the rest. Some action verbs name activities that are not actions in the usual sense: have, pause, think, consider, wait. There are relatively few linking verbs in English. The most common are the eight forms of the verb be: 8 | Brehe’s Grammar Anatomy be are been is being was am were It’s helpful to commit all the forms of be to memory, because you’ll need to recognize them again and again in this book and in other works about English grammar. Here are some of the other linking verbs: seem, become, remain. Many linking verbs are related to our senses: look, feel, smell, sound, taste, appear: Bill looked angry. Bill sounded angry. Bill felt angry. The kitchen smelled wonderful. The soup tasted good. The examples of linking verbs may seem confusing because some verbs can be used as action verbs (Bob appeared suddenly) or as linking verbs (Bob appeared ill). To clarify the differences, consider the following pairs of sentences. The first sentence in each pair contains a linking verb; the second contains an action verb: Frank felt well. Frank felt the cold air. Marsha looked wonderful. Marsha looked out the window. The tomatoes tasted sweet. We tasted the tomatoes. The Indispensables: Nouns and Verbs | 9 Ed remained stubborn. Ed remained in his room. In each pair, the first sentence with the linking verb describes the subject in some way. The second sentence with the action verb tells us what the subject did. Many of the words that follow the verbs are not modifiers but other kinds of words that we’ll learn about soon. AUXILIARY VERBS AND MAIN VERBS Compare the verbs in these pairs of sentences: Mr. Morton broke the vase. Mr. Morton has broken another vase. Jeff sang an old Irish song. Jeff should have sung an old Lithuanian song. Martha won the race. Martha should have been winning all along. In the second sentence of each pair, the simple predicate consists of more than one verb. In any sentence, the verb can be one to four words long: Mr. Morton broke the vase. Mr. Morton has broken another vase. Mr. Morton has been breaking vases all afternoon. Mr. Morton should not have been juggling vases. In any sentence with two or more words in the verb, the rightmost verb is called the main verb. In the four sentences just above, broke, broken, breaking, and juggling are the main verbs. 10 | Brehe’s Grammar Anatomy All the other words in the underlined verb are auxiliary verbs (sometimes called helping verbs). Together the auxiliary verbs and the main verb make the simple predicate, which is the entire verb of the sentence. The simple predicate can be one to four words long and includes only the main verb (which is always present) and its auxiliary verbs (if any). It is the main verb that determines if the simple predicate is an action verb or linking verb. Here’s a list of the auxiliary verbs in English: am have do can may are has does could might is had did shall must was should were will be would been being There are eight forms of be, three forms of have, three forms of do, three rhyming pairs (can/could; shall/should; will/would), and three m- verbs. Sometimes words like ought to and have to are included among the auxiliaries. We’ll discuss those later in Chapter 20. You don’t have to memorize the entire list, but you should refer to it often until you can recognize auxiliary verbs when you see them. You should also learn all the forms of the verb be in the first column. Remember that auxiliary verbs always come before the main verb. Also notice that some auxiliaries can be used as main verbs: Rhianna was planning the party. [Was is the auxiliary.] Rhianna was early. [Was is the main verb.] The Indispensables: Nouns and Verbs | 11 The Browns have purchased the gift. [Have is the auxiliary.] The Browns have the receipt. [Have is the main verb.] The Greens do like reading. [Do is the auxiliary.] The Greens do the dishes every day. [Do is the main verb.] Still other auxiliaries in the list are used only as auxiliaries, as in these examples: Al can go. Hal may go. Al could go. Hal might tango. Al will go. No, Hal must go. Al would go. Al shall go. Al should just go. Notice that many of the auxiliaries are present or past forms: Could, should, and would are the past forms of can, shall, and will. We see this usage in sentences like this: My uncle can play the harmonica well. My late uncle could play the harmonica well. In Chapter 20, we’ll see some of these same words used as modal auxiliaries, which often indicate a future possible action: If you practiced, you could play the harmonica well. The verb do is also worth a bit of attention, because we use it in English as an auxiliary for questions and for emphasis: Does Paula write well? Did Paula arrive early? Yes, Paula does write well. Yes, Paula did arrive early. 12 | Brehe’s Grammar Anatomy When you’re learning another language and want to translate an English sentence that uses do for a question or for emphasis, you’ll probably find that other languages don’t use their equivalent of do in this way. Sometimes the complete verb is interrupted by another word or two. These usually appear after the first auxiliary verb: Mr. Morton has actually broken another vase. Mr. Morton should probably not have been juggling vases. We will definitely not be inviting Mr. Morton back. The words that interrupt the verb are adverbs, which we’ll learn about shortly. POINTS FOR WRITERS 1. Subject-verb agreement. One of the most basic features of English is that the form of the verb sometimes changes to match a change in the subject. If the subject is singular, the verb will have one form: Pam sings. Mom drives. Ed listens. But if the subject is plural, the verb may take another form: Pam and Jim sing. Mom and Dad drive. Ed and Alice listen. The change in the verb for singular and plural subjects is called subject-verb agreement. The verb must agree with the subject. The Indispensables: Nouns and Verbs | 13 Agreement doesn’t make the verb change in every case. For instance, the verb doesn’t change form when the sentence is about something that happened in the past: Pam sang. Pam and Jim sang. Mom drove. Mom and Dad drove. Ed listened. Ed and Alice listened. If you’ve spoken English since you were young, you probably make the verb agree without even being aware of it because it’s second nature to you. We’ll look more closely at agreement in Chapter 9. 2. May and can. As you may already know, there is an important difference between the auxiliary verbs may and can. May is often used to ask or grant permission or to indicate possibility: May Jim leave the room? Yes, Jim may. Jim may leave, but he hasn’t decided. Can is used to discuss ability: Can Jim reach the top shelf? I think he can. In everyday conversation, we often confuse can and may, and it seldom matters because our listeners can understand us in 14 | Brehe’s Grammar Anatomy the immediate context. In careful writing, the distinction may be important, and failing to observe it is sometimes seen as a mark of a careless writer. EXERCISES 2a. In the sentences below, underline the complete predicates. Then enclose the simple subjects and simple predicates in brackets, like this: [Sue] [did call] yesterday. 1. The family was having coffee. 2. The family was content. 3. Without warning, John entered the room. 4. John made an announcement. 5. The vases are gone. 6. The family became furious. 7. Mr. Morton had struck again. 8. Mr. Morton had some nerve. 9. Someday that man will regret his actions. 10. Mr. Morton’s reputation has been damaged by these allegations. 11. Everywhere people are hiding their vases. The Indispensables: Nouns and Verbs | 15 12. Mr. Morton seems a little strange. 2b. Now, in the sentences that you just examined, identify action verbs (with A) and linking verbs (with L), as in this example: [Sue] [did call] yesterday. (A) 2c. Finally, identify the auxiliary verbs and the main verb in each sentence you’ve examined. Remember, if there’s only one verb, it must be the main verb. 3 Get Tense Verb Tense, Principal Parts, and Irregular Verbs This chapter is long, but be at ease, Louise. Much of this chapter consists of examples that illustrate the ideas discussed here. Most of it is not difficult. There’s a good deal to know about verbs, including the matters of verb tenses and the related notions of the principal parts of verbs and the regular and irregular verbs. The good news is that you know much of this already. You’ve used the tenses and principal parts ever since you learned to talk. What may be new to you here are the terms that we apply to them and the way we organize them. So relax, Max. THE TENSES Tense? We don’t mean over-caffeinated verbs. We mean that, in the right context, verbs communicate that an action took place in the present, past, or future. English has four sets of tenses, and each set contains a present, a past, and a future tense, each with its own distinctions in refer- ence to time. Here we’ll examine briefly all four sets: The simple tenses: present, past, and future. The perfect tenses: present, past, and future. Get Tense: Verb Tense, Principal Parts, and Irregular Verbs | 17 The simple progressive tenses: present, past, and future. The perfect progressive tenses: present, past, and future. THE SIMPLE TENSES These are the tenses we use most often: SIMPLE PRESENT: Today I phone my mother. SIMPLE PAST: Yesterday I phoned my mother. SIMPLE FUTURE: Tomorrow I will phone my mother. Notice that we seldom use the simple present in a sentence like “Today I phone my mother.” Instead, we use the simple past: Today I phoned my mother. Or we use the simple future, Today I will phone my mother. Or we use a tense that we’ll examine in a moment, the present progressive tense: I’m phoning my mother right now. But we’ll continue to use this somewhat unusual form in our examples of the simple present. Here are more examples of the simple tenses: SIMPLE PRESENT: Today I talk. SIMPLE PAST: Yesterday I talked. SIMPLE FUTURE: Tomorrow I will talk. 18 | Brehe’s Grammar Anatomy SIMPLE PRESENT: Today I walk. SIMPLE PAST: Yesterday I walked. SIMPLE FUTURE: Tomorrow I will walk. SIMPLE PRESENT: Today I build. SIMPLE PAST: Yesterday I built. SIMPLE FUTURE: Tomorrow I will build. As these examples show, we create the simple present tense by using the simplest possible form of a verb. The simple present ends with -s in cases like these: he phones, he talks, he builds. For the great majority of English verbs, we create the simple past tense by adding -d (as in phoned) or -ed (as in talked, walked, or hunted) to the present form. In a few cases, we make the past by adding -t (as in built). With all verbs, we create the simple future tense by adding the auxiliary verb will to the simple present form. THE PERFECT TENSES The perfect tenses are not called perfect because they’re flawless. (Only your grammar teacher is flawless.) They are called perfect because the perfect tenses describe actions that have already been completed (i.e., perfected) at some point in the past, present, or future. All the perfect tenses are based on a form of the main verb called the past participle, which in most verbs is identical to the form in the simple past tense. (We’ll see more of the past participle a bit later.) Verbs in the present perfect tense always add the auxiliary verb have (or has) to the past participle form. They refer to actions that were recently completed: I have called my mother today. She has called her mother today. Get Tense: Verb Tense, Principal Parts, and Irregular Verbs | 19 Verbs in the past perfect tense always add the auxiliary had to the past participle form. They refer to actions completed at some point in the past: I had called my mother by noon yesterday. The future perfect tense, like the simple future tense, always begins with the auxiliary will, followed by have: By noon tomorrow I will have called my mother. Here are some examples: PRESENT PERFECT:Today I have talked. PAST PERFECT: As of yesterday, I had talked. FUTURE PERFECT: By this time tomorrow I will have talked. PRESENT PERFECT:Today I have walked. PAST PERFECT: As of yesterday, I had walked. FUTURE PERFECT: By this time tomorrow I will have walked. PRESENT PERFECT:Today I have complained. PAST PERFECT: As of yesterday, I had complained. FUTURE PERFECT: By this time tomorrow I will have complained. If you compare the main verbs in these perfect tense sentences with the main verbs in the simple past sentences that we saw earlier, you’ll see that they are exactly the same words. This is a point that we’ll return to when we discuss regular and irregular verbs. THE SIMPLE PROGRESSIVE AND PERFECT PROGRESSIVE TENSES The simple progressive tenses refer to actions that have been in progress at a particular point in time. The main verbs in 20 | Brehe’s Grammar Anatomy the progressive tenses always end in -ing, and they always take an auxiliary verb that is a form of the verb be. The future progressive tense always begins with the auxiliaries will be. Here are some examples: PRESENT PROGRESSIVE: Today I am phoning. PAST PROGRESSIVE: Yesterday I was phoning. FUTURE PROGRESSIVE: Tomorrow I will be phoning. PRESENT PROGRESSIVE: Today I am hunting. PAST PROGRESSIVE: Yesterday I was hunting. FUTURE PROGRESSIVE: Tomorrow I will be hunting. PRESENT PROGRESSIVE: Today I am griping. PAST PROGRESSIVE: Yesterday I was griping. FUTURE PROGRESSIVE: Tomorrow I will be griping. In the perfect progressive tenses, we describe actions that have been in progress but were completed (or will be completed) in the present, past, or future. The main verb is still an -ing form, and it always has two aux- iliaries: a form of have followed by been. In fact, all the auxiliaries in all tenses of the perfect progressive are perfect tenses of the verb be. In the present perfect progress, the auxiliaries are have been or (with third-person singular subjects) has been. In the past, they are had been. And, of course, in the future perfect progressive, the auxiliaries are will have been. PRESENT PERFECT PROGRESSIVE: Today I have been phoning. PAST PERFECT PROGRESSIVE: Yesterday I had been phoning. FUTURE PERFECT PROGRESSIVE: By this time tomorrow I will have been phoning. PRESENT PERFECT PROGRESSIVE: Today I have been hunting. PAST PERFECT PROGRESSIVE: Yesterday I had been hunting. FUTURE PERFECT PROGRESSIVE: By this time tomorrow I will have been hunting. Get Tense: Verb Tense, Principal Parts, and Irregular Verbs | 21 PRESENT PERFECT PROGRESSIVE: Today I have been grousing. PAST PERFECT PROGRESSIVE: Yesterday I had been grousing. FUTURE PERFECT PROGRESSIVE: By this time tomorrow I will have been grousing. THE THREE (OR FOUR) PRINCIPAL PARTS Most English verbs have consistent verb forms that we use to create the tenses we’ve just examined. These are called regular verbs, which means that the form to create the past tense and the perfect tenses are the same. That is, in both the simple past tense and the perfect tenses, we add –d or –ed, or (in a few cases) add a final -t. No other change in spelling happens, as you’ll see in the table below. So we say that every verb (except some auxiliary verbs) has three principal parts: the present, the past, and the past participle (which is the form used with have for perfect tenses). These are usually presented in a table like this: present past past participle I talk I talked I have talked I hunt I hunted I have hunted I phone I phoned I have phoned I build I built I have built All of these are regular verbs. The past and past participle are the same word. Notice the relatively new verb to phone. Newly-created English verbs are always regular: fax, faxed; text, texted; friend, friended. (But there is at least one exception: We hung out at the mall.) When we speak of a fourth principal part, it’s always the present participle, the -ing form used for progressive tenses: talking, hunting, phoning, building. And the -ing form is easy. 22 | Brehe’s Grammar Anatomy IRREGULAR VERBS Irregular verbs are less consistent in their past and past participle forms. Although English has fewer irregular verbs than regular, there are hundreds of them. Many are among the most commonly used verbs in English. Here are a small number: present past past participle I begin I began I have begun I break I broke I have broken I bring I brought I have brought I drink I drank I have drunk I drive I drove I have driven I fly I flew I have flown I freeze I froze I have frozen I know I knew I have known I ride I rode I have ridden I ring I rang I have rung I see I saw I have seen I sink I sank I have sunk I speak I spoke I have spoken I swim I swam I have swum I swing I swung I have swung I take I took I have taken I write I wrote I have written All of us make errors now and then with some of the irregular verbs, and it’s a good idea to identify those that give you the most trouble and study them. The table above gives you some of the most common irregulars, and you can find complete lists in many Get Tense: Verb Tense, Principal Parts, and Irregular Verbs | 23 grammar books and on the Internet. A dictionary can always help you with specific verbs. One way to study irregulars is to group the verbs that are similar in their past and past participle forms, like this: present past past participle I begin I began I have begun I drink I drank I have drunk I ring I rang I have rung I sink I sank I have sunk I swim I swam I have swum I break I broke I have broken I freeze I froze I have frozen I speak I spoke I have spoken I drive I drove I have driven I ride I rode I have ridden I write I wrote I have written I fly I flew I have flown I know I knew I have known The following are verbs that you may also want to study. The verb dive is in fact regular: I dive I dived I have dived But dove, as a past and past participle, has become so common that it is now widely accepted. We might call the verb burst “super-regular.” It doesn’t change at all: 24 | Brehe’s Grammar Anatomy Today I burst Yesterday I burst I have burst Other super-regular verbs include hit, set, and split. Shine is a peculiar case. Used as a transitive verb (which we’ll study soon), it’s regular: They have shined their trophies every month. They shine They shined They have shined As an intransitive verb (another term that’s coming up), it’s irregular: The sun has shone all day. It shines It shone It had shone The verb hang is also peculiar, taking different forms depending on its meaning. Imagine you’re in a dusty little town in the Old West, and you ask a gnarled old-timer, “Whatever happened to that grammar teacher?” And the old-timer answers, We’ve hanged that danged grammar teacher. He was all the time correctin’ us! But if you’re proudly displaying your framed diploma on the wall, you could say, I’ve finally hung my diploma. There are six verbs (grouped in pairs below) that confuse us all at some point: I sit down. I set the books down. I lie down. I lay the books down. I rise up. I raise the books up. Get Tense: Verb Tense, Principal Parts, and Irregular Verbs | 25 In the left column, the verbs indicate the way you are position- ing yourself. They are all irregular verbs. In the right column, the verbs indicate the way you are positioning the object (or anything else separate from yourself). They are all regular. It’s easy to keep these two sets of verbs straight: The verbs on the left all have the letter i as their first vowel. Remember that “the i-verbs indicate how I change my position.” Let’s take a look at the principal parts of these three pairs of verbs. Notice that the second verb in each pair is regular. You probably know these already: present past past participle I sit I sat I have sat I set I set I have set You may also know these: present past past participle I rise I rose I have risen I raise I raised I have raised Perhaps the most difficult of all irregular verbs are lie and lay: present past past participle I lie (recline) I lay I have lain I lay (set down) I laid I have laid I lie (fib) I lied I have lied As you see here, there are two verbs to lie. One means to recline, and one means to fib. Lie (to fib) is easy—it’s a regular verb. Lay (to set down) is also a regular verb. Lie (to recline) is irregular, and it confuses many people 26 | Brehe’s Grammar Anatomy because its past form, I lay, is identical to the present form of to lay (set down). To add to the confusion, in speech I lay down (the correct form) sounds exactly like I laid down (the wrong form), so we’re often making mistakes because we’re repeating the forms we hear—or think we hear. (The whole thing makes us want to lie down, no lie.) It is probably accurate to say that many English speakers, per- haps most of us, misuse lie sometimes, but you can master it in a few moments and remember it with a little review now and then. Even with irregular verbs, the past participle is always used with the auxiliary have (or its other forms has or had) to create perfect tenses (have lain). Forms of the verb be are always used with the -ing form (the present participle) to create progressive tenses. EXERCISES 3a. Write from memory the simple and perfect tenses of the verb call. 3b. Write from memory the simple progressive and perfect progressive tenses of the verb call. 3c. Write from memory the simple and perfect tenses of the verb know. 3d. Write from memory the simple progressive and perfect progressive tenses of the verb know. 3e. Complete these sentences using the correct verb and the correct principal part: 1. I will ___ here. (sit / set) 2. I will ___ my suitcase in the corner. (sit / set) Get Tense: Verb Tense, Principal Parts, and Irregular Verbs | 27 3. I will ___ my bag to the top shelf. (rise / raise) 4. I will ___ from my seat. (rise / raise) 5. I have ___ from my seat. (risen / raised) 6. I have ___ my bag. (risen / raised) 7. I will ___ down. (lie / lay) 8. I will ___ my bag over here. (lie / lay) 9. I have ___ here for an hour. (lain / laid) 10. An hour ago, I ___ my bag there. (lain / laid) 3f. Complete the sentences using one or more auxiliary verbs: 1. The perfect tenses use forms of the auxiliary verb ___. 2. The progressive tenses use forms of the auxiliary verb ___. 3. The perfect progressive tenses use forms of two auxiliary verbs: ___ and ___. 4. All future tenses use the auxiliary ___. 3g. Identify the tense of the verb in each of the following sentences using one of these twelve terms: Simple past, present, or future Present perfect, past perfect, or future perfect Present progressive, past progressive, or future progressive 28 | Brehe’s Grammar Anatomy Present perfect progressive, past perfect progressive, or future perfect progressive 1. She was here yesterday. 2. We have been waiting for you for an hour. 3. She broke her glasses. 4. She has broken her glasses twice. 5. Yesterday’s news burst all our illusions. 6. I will speak to the principal. 7. I will be speaking to the principal. 8. We had spoken to the principal already. 9. You will have been speaking to the principal by now. 10. I have sung this song before. 3h. Complete the sentences using the names of principal parts of the verbs, or with the auxiliaries will, have, and be. 1. The perfect tenses are constructed using the third principal part, called the ___. 2. The progressive tenses are constructed using the fourth principal part, called the ___. 3. All future tense verbs begin with the auxiliary ___. Get Tense: Verb Tense, Principal Parts, and Irregular Verbs | 29 4. All perfect tenses are constructed using some form of the auxiliary ___. 5. All progressive tenses are constructed using some form of the auxiliary ___. 6. The tenses constructed using both the auxiliaries have and be are called the ___ tenses. 4 Tall, Dark, and Wordsome Adjectives MODIFIERS AND PHRASES As we saw in Chapter 1, nouns and verbs often have modifiers, words that describe the noun or the verb. The following examples are not sentences but only parts of sentences. Here man is the noun; all the other words before and after man are modifiers that restrict the meaning of man in some way: The man The man in our neighborhood The irritable, unfriendly man in our neighborhood As we’ve seen before, many modifiers appear immediately before the noun they modify: The, irritable, unfriendly. Some appear after: in our neighborhood. This brings us to a common term that we use throughout these chapters: phrase. A phrase is a word or group of words used as a single grammatical unit. The three examples above are noun phrases. They contain the noun man and other words and phrases that modify man. Tall, Dark, and Wordsome: Adjectives | 31 Each of those noun phrases could be used as a single grammatical unit—for example, as the subject of a sentence. That is, the noun by itself would be the simple subject, and the noun and its modifiers would be the complete subject. ADJECTIVES Words like irritable and unfriendly are adjectives. Adjectives modify nouns and sometimes pronouns. They describe the noun or place limits on the word’s range of reference. In the following noun phrases, all the underlined words are adjectives: The silvery moon The light brown hair Blue skies In most cases, adjectives simply describe nouns: tall, short, ripe, rotten, round, perfect, clean, dirty, blank, full, empty, old, new, ancient, medieval, modern, and thousands more. THE THREE ARTICLES There are only three articles in English: a, an, and the. Articles are always used to modify nouns. Some grammar books treat articles as if they are a separate class of words, but in this book we’ll consider them a small, special subset of adjectives. There is some confusion about when to use a and an. We use the article a before a word that begins with a consonant, and use an before a word that begins with a vowel, as in these phrases: A child An only child A cheese omelet An omelet But we’re sometimes puzzled when we see a and an used in phrases like these: 32 | Brehe’s Grammar Anatomy A union of concerned citizens An honor to work with you So let’s clarify the rules: Use a before a word beginning with a consonant sound (as in a union or a child): A unicorn An uninvited guest Use an before a word beginning with a vowel sound (as in an honor or an only child): A man An honest man The important consideration is the first sound (not the first letter) in the word following the article. This includes the first sound in abbreviations: An M.D., a U. S. territory. Finally, a and an are called the indefinite articles. The is the only definite article in English, indicating a specific object that we can distinguish from all other objects of the same kind: the last straw. ADJECTIVES AND WORD ORDER In the noun phrases we’ve seen so far, the adjective appears before the noun. But adjectives can also appear immediately after the noun: The old house, dark and foreboding The noisy fairground, bright and crowded A glorious sunset, gold and lavender Articles are helpful in recognizing other adjectives. Consider this: The smaller child learned the simplest tasks. Tall, Dark, and Wordsome: Adjectives | 33 When a word appears between an article and a noun, it’s an adjective or another word functioning as an adjective. COMMON KINDS OF ADJECTIVES There are certain groups of words that we can easily recognize as adjectives. Color words are often adjectives: a blue moon, green apples. (Sometimes, in a different context, color words are nouns: a dark blue, a vivid red.) These color words are adjectives: The green apples The gold and lavender sunset Red sails Red, white, and blue bunting A blue moon A yellow traffic light There are other descriptive words: The new house A sentimental old song Impulsive behavior Exciting new developments A generous gift Soft music There are adjectives that indicate number or quantity: Both friends One sock A few corrections Two shirts Many pages Three shoes Words that show possession are often used as adjectives: My mistake Bob and Ray’s routine Your complaint Wayne’s help His insight Elizabeth’s reign 34 | Brehe’s Grammar Anatomy Some question words can be used as adjectives: Which room? What mess? Whose responsibility? We’ll say it again: A good desk or online dictionary can help you identify adjectives and other words. NOUNS AND VERBS USED ADJECTIVALLY Sometimes we build a noun phrase by using nouns or verbs to modify a noun: The street noise The squeaking wheel The traffic accident A frozen lake In these cases, we say that the noun or verb is used adjectivally, and we’ll look at more cases of these in future chapters. COMPARISONS OF ADJECTIVES Some adjectives have three forms, which together make the comparison of the adjective: Positive Comparative Superlative hot hotter hottest cold colder coldest friendly friendlier friendliest famous more famous most famous suspicious more suspicious most suspicious athletic more athletic most athletic Tall, Dark, and Wordsome: Adjectives | 35 In any comparison of adjectives like these, there is a positive form of the adjective that simply names a quality the noun has: hot, cold, friendly. We use the comparative when we’re comparing two—and only two—items, and we use the superlative when we’re comparing three or more: Susan is a fast runner. Susan is a faster runner than Alice. In fact, she’s the fastest runner of all. As we see in these sentences, when we’re comparing one- syllable adjectives (and some two-syllable adjectives), we create the comparative and superlative forms by adding the suffixes –er and –est. See the examples for hot, cold, and friendly in the table of comparisons above. When we’re comparing adjectives of three or more syllables (and some two-syllable adjectives), we create the comparative and superlative forms by placing the modifiers more and most before the adjectives. See the examples for famous, suspicious, and athletic in the table above. When the comparison of an adjective is formed using the -er and -est suffices or the more and most adverbs, we refer to it as a regular adjective. Some two-syllable adjectives, like those below, can take either kind of comparison: happy, happier, happiest happy, more happy, most happy. often, oftener, oftenest often, more often, most often 36 | Brehe’s Grammar Anatomy Many careful writers seem to prefer happy, happier, happiest and often, more often, most often. When in doubt about a comparison, turn to the dictionary. And never use both kinds of comparison with the same word: WRONG: Ed is our most hardest working employee. Some adjectives that describe absolute qualities cannot be compared logically: We don’t usually say deader or deadest, or more pregnant or most pregnant, unless we’re kidding around. And it usually doesn’t make sense to say more full or most instant or most continuous. But sometimes we ignore logic, especially in everyday conver- sation. Unique (meaning “one of a kind”) is a well-known example. Logically, something is either unique or it isn’t, but people will still say things like this: That tire swing in their living room is a very unique feature. They mean that it’s an unusual feature. But in everyday con- versation (as opposed to professional writing), it seldom matters if you say very unique or most unique. Every now and then a careful writer will ignore all of these arguments and compare an absolute quality, and it works. The opening words of the Preamble of the United States Constitution are one such example: We, the People of the United States, in Order to form a more perfect Union.... No one we know of has ever objected. Tall, Dark, and Wordsome: Adjectives | 37 POINTS FOR WRITERS 1. Know the irregular adjectives. A few adjectives have comparisons that are like clothes you see marked down in the stores: They’re irregular adjectives— they don’t follow the usual patterns. They are some of the most commonly used adjectives, so you probably know most of them already: Positive Comparative Superlative bad worse worst good better best little less least much (or many) more most 2. Use superlatives correctly. Consider this sentence: I’ve heard Barbra and Taylor sing. Barbra is the best singer. By the strictest rules of usage, we should write Barbra is the better singer, because we’re only comparing two singers. Using the superlative form in a comparison of two is common in casual conversation, but we should try to avoid it in careful writing unless we’re deliberately developing an informal style. 3. Use hyphens in certain kinds of phrases. When we use an entire phrase as an adjective, we typically hyphenate it: 38 | Brehe’s Grammar Anatomy The four-year-old girl A by-the-numbers process The broken-down car The short-term solution Some cases are a bit more complex. Consider this noun phrase: Nineteenth-century and twentieth-century American literature We can remove one word and say the same thing: Nineteenth- and twentieth-century American literature Notice the hanging hyphen after nineteenth. It enables nineteenth and twentieth to share the second element century. Here’s another example: Short- and long-term solutions. All the uses of hyphens shown here reflect formal usage. Increasingly, the hyphen is omitted in cases like these in less formal published prose. EXERCISES 4a. Name the three articles. 4b. Identify the adjectives (including articles) in these sentences and underline them: 1. The new teacher is waiting in the outer office. 2. A rainy day could ruin the entire event. 3. Count Dracula is the tall, pale man in the shadows. Tall, Dark, and Wordsome: Adjectives | 39 4. A backyard garden is a wonderful thing. 5. She wore a red and white dress to the casual party. 6. I gave my little brother good advice. 7. She has been a better student this year because of her hard work. 8. Bob’s idea is the worst idea I’ve heard in a long time. 9. The point-by-point refutation was a difficult argument to follow. 10. Two roads lead to his farm. 11. Which roads are those? 4c. Give the comparative and superlative forms of these adjectives; use a dictionary when you need it. In some cases, there may be no comparative or superlative forms. 1. Small 2. Fast 3. Bright 4. Good 5. Bad 6. Curious 40 | Brehe’s Grammar Anatomy 7. Cheerful 8. Happy 9. Wrong 10. Far (meaning anything except geographical distance) 5 Inevitably, Adverbs Adverbs are another important kind of modifier. Here’s a definition that we’ll refer to time and again: Adverbs are words that modify verbs, adjectives, and other adverbs. When adverbs modify verbs, they indicate when, where, why, or how the action was performed. Let’s begin with the simple sentence He ran. Ran is a verb and the complete predicate in this sentence, and we can expand the predicate by adding any possible adverb: He ran quickly. Instead of quickly, we could use slowly, clumsily, gracefully, erratically, fast, then, later, and many others. All the adverbs we can add to He ran answer this question: “When, where, why, or how did he run?” Common adverbs that modify verbs include soon, later, now, then, before, after, here, there, forward, backward, badly, well, far, also, not, too, and many more. 42 | Brehe’s Grammar Anatomy Remember the point we saw in Chapter 3: When a word appears between an auxiliary verb and the main verb, it’s an adverb that modifies the main verb: He had finally stopped the noise. Remember, too, that all the adverbs we add to a sentence to modify the verb are part of the complete predicate. When adverbs modify adjectives, they appear before the adjective and modify the quality expressed by the adjective: The bright red car sped away. We use (and overuse) several adverbs to modify adverbs, particularly very. We could write quite, extremely, somewhat, or rather. Here, the adverb helps to describe the color of the red car. When adverbs modify other adverbs, adverbs modify the quality expressed by the other adverb: Mr. Morton ran quite quickly. Instead of quite, we could write somewhat, very, a bit, rather, more, or less. Here, adverbs answer the question, “How quickly did Mr. Morton run?” Notice that, when adverbs modify adjectives or other adverbs, they nearly always appear just before the word they modify. Clearly adverbs are a diverse class of words; they have a great many uses and forms. COMPARISONS OF ADVERBS Some adverbs, like many adjectives, have three forms, which together make the comparison of the adverb: Inevitably, Adverbs | 43 Positive Comparative Superlative close closer closest fast faster fastest early earlier earliest warmly more warmly most warmly generously more generously most generously suspiciously more suspiciously most suspiciously Here again, we use the positive when we’re describing the action or quality of one thing, we use the comparative when we’re comparing two (and only two), and we use the superlative when we’re comparing three or more. A relatively small number of adverbs form comparisons with the -er and -est suffixes: Susan runs fast. Susan runs faster than Alice. In fact, she runs fastest of all. The examples above show that some adverbs (like fast) resemble adjectives with little or no difference in spelling or pronunciation, but with a clear difference in their use. This is obvious if we compare the three sentences above about Susan with the similar sentences we saw in Chapter 4: Susan is a fast runner. Susan is a faster runner than Alice. In fact, she’s the fastest runner of all. With fast (and some words like it), we can distinguish the adverb fast from the adjective fast only by the context. When we use a word like fast to modify a verb, grammarians say that we use it adverbially. 44 | Brehe’s Grammar Anatomy Most of the adverbs that end with -ly use the more and most comparisons. Dictionaries can always help you find the right forms. THOSE MOST IRREGULAR COMPARISONS There are also irregular adverbs that don’t follow the usual patterns. They are some of the most commonly used adverbs, so you know most of them already: Positive Comparative Superlative badly worse worst well better best little less least much (or many) more most far farther farthest further furthest Far requires some attention. In prescriptive grammar, far, farther, and farthest are supposed to be used to describe physical distance: He ran farther than I did. Far, further, and furthest are to be used in every other kind of situation: He went further in school than I did. It’s no surprise that some writers find this distinction unnecessary, especially because most Americans aren’t even aware of it. These writers argue that the adverb is always clear no matter which form is used, so we need to settle on one set of comparisons and use it in most or all situations. Inevitably, Adverbs | 45 But there is no clear consensus on how to simplify the far comparison. (That word is far too troublesome.) In your professional writing, an editor or supervisor may expect you to do it the prescriptive way. NOUNS USED ADVERBIALLY Used correctly, other words can modify verbs—particularly nouns that specify where, how, or when the action occurred: We walked home. We walked single file. This may seem odd, but it will be clearer when we discuss form, function, and parts of speech in Chapter 16. Nouns regarding time are commonly used adverbially: They celebrated her birthday yesterday. Tomorrow we go on vacation. Monday we return from vacation. They worked in the yard Saturday. Nouns can also function adverbially to modify adjectives. In these sentences, the modified adjective is in bold: My son is now four feet tall. My daughter is two inches taller. They worked all day long. Finally, adverbial nouns can modify other adverbs. In these sentences, the modified adverbs are in bold: I wish we had left a day later. We can go ten miles farther. 46 | Brehe’s Grammar Anatomy CURIOUS ADVERBS: WHEN, WHERE, WHY, AND HOW When, where, why, and how are four of the most important adverbs in our language. They are the interrogative adverbs, the ones we use to ask questions. We usually place them at or near the beginning of a question: Where are you going? When will you be back? There are of course other useful question words, like who or what, but those are interrogative pronouns, which we’ll learn about in Chapter 19. In this chapter, we’ve learned that nouns can be used adver- bially, and the interrogative adverbs return the favor. Sometimes they are used as nouns: I know I’m supposed to be someplace today, but I can’t remember where or when. POINTS FOR WRITERS 1. Place adverbs correctly. Adverbs that modify verbs are often moveable; they can be placed in several places in the sentence without changing the meaning: Quickly Phil called the police. Phil quickly called the police. Phil called the police quickly. Inevitably, Adverbs | 47 Quietly the children hurried home. The children quietly hurried home. The children hurried home quietly. Then he ran. He then ran. He ran then. The three underlined adverbs obviously work in several places in the sentence. Moving them doesn’t alter the meaning, although it may alter the rhythm or emphasis in the sentence. But moving some words, like only or however, can change the meaning: Only Mr. Morton broke the vase. [Mr. Morton broke it all by himself.] Mr. Morton only broke the vase. [He didn’t do anything else to it.] Mr. Morton broke only the vase. [He didn’t break anything else—yet.] As we move only, the new contexts change its meaning in the sentences above. (In the first sentence, only is an adjective.) 2. Distinguish good and well. Writing for publication or for other professional reasons, you must observe the distinction between good and well: He is a good writer. He writes well. [Never write He writes good.] 48 | Brehe’s Grammar Anatomy Good is an adjective. Well is sometimes an adverb and some- times an adjective, depending on context. It can be an adjective meaning healthy, in sentences like this: Finally my son is well. It’s hard to use well well. Probably everyone has confused good and well in casual conversation at one time or another, and there it seldom matters. But readers and editors will assume that you’re a careless writer if you confuse the two in your professional work. EXERCISES These exercises refer to matters you’ve read about in the last two chapters. Don’t hesitate to turn back to Chapter 4 if you need to review. 5a. In the following sentences, mark the underlined words to classify them as adjectives (ADJ) or adverbs (ADV). Count the articles a, an, and the as adjectives. The adverbs here modify verbs only. Here are examples to help: ADJ ADJ This is a pleasant day. ADJ ADJ ADV The small child runs quickly. ADJ ADJ ADV The other child runs faster. 1. The smaller child learned the simplest tasks. 2. The child learns eagerly. Inevitably, Adverbs | 49 3. John almost had an answer to the difficult question. 4. Father always encourages realistic thinking. 5. The furious family did not wait to see the busy manager. 6. A thick, wet snow fell softly. 7. Silently, a strange man in a black cape stood in the shadows. 5b. Write the comparative and superlative forms of these adverbs; use a dictionary when you need to. 1. Fast 2. Quickly 3. Slowly 4. Angrily 5. Carefully 6. Well 7. Badly 8. Early 9. Far (referring to geographical distance) 10. Often 5c. In these sentences, classify the underlined adverbs: Do they modify verbs, adjectives, or other adverbs? 50 | Brehe’s Grammar Anatomy 1. Your mistake was a very small one. 2. He does well when he tries hard. 3. He does quite well when he tries. 4. The secretary’s notes are evidently missing. 5. Now we finally have the notes. 6. We took notes rather rapidly, but we could not keep up. 7. We still need good notes. 5d. Correct the errors in the underlined adjectives and adverbs, which may include suffixes or, in some cases, the placement of the word. Some are correct. 1. Esther and Ryan play good, but Esther plays best. 2. By sunset we will have hiked ten miles or further. 3. The library has the most complete book on baseball. 4. Bob was the student only left behind. [Here the writer is trying to say that no one else was left behind.] 5. Final we reached the motel. 6. Be real careful on this highway. 7. We saw that Bart looked sadly. Inevitably, Adverbs | 51 8. Bart was looking sad at his wrecked car. 9. Bart was feeling sadly on his way home. 10. In the lab, we measured the results as precise as we could. 6 Among the Prepositions Prepositions are short, simple, and remarkably useful words. We use prepositions to create modifying phrases called prepositional phrases. With prepositions we can connect a noun phrase—called the object of the preposition—to another word in a sentence. The preposition and its object together make the prepositional phrase. A prepositional phrase usually modifies a noun or verb, but it can also modify an adjective or adverb. Here are some examples of prepositional phrases. The prepo- sitions are underlined, and the remaining words are the objects of the prepositions (with modifiers, in some cases): among the debris beside our house on the roof from the roof in the room by the room to our house after dinner for your birthday with her As you see, prepositions usually precede their objects—that is, they are pre-positioned before the objects. In English, there are hundreds of thousands of nouns, verbs, adjectives, and adverbs, but there are relatively few prepositions— Among the Prepositions | 53 perhaps one hundred or so. The list below contains most of the frequently used prepositions. If you read over the following list (about seventy) now and then, and refer to it when you need to, it will be easier for you to recognize prepositional phrases. And dictionaries can always help you recognize them: aboard besides past about between save above beyond than across but (meaning except) since after by through against despite throughout along down till alongside during to amid except toward amidst for towards among from under amongst in underneath around into unlike as like until astride near up at of upon atop off with before on within behind onto without below out worth beneath outside beside over We’ll look at more prepositions shortly. The most important characteristic of a preposition is that it’s usually followed by its object. You have to be careful about classifying a word as a preposition, because many of them act as other kinds of words—especially as adverbs. Some can also be 54 | Brehe’s Grammar Anatomy special kinds of words that we’ll study later, such as participles or as particles in phrasal verbs. A dictionary can help you make the distinction. MORE EXAMPLES Prepositional phrases serve a remarkable variety of purposes. Here are a few of their common uses, with prepositional phrases in the right-hand columns in the examples below. Prepositional phrases often indicate relative spatial positions, as in these examples modifying nouns (i.e., they’re all adjectival phrases): the alley behind [or beside] our house, on our block the shingles on top of our house the shingle on the roof the plate in the cupboard, by itself the shoe under [or by] the sofa, without the other the picture above the sofa, of Dorian Gray Prepositional phrases often indicate relative direction of movement, as in these adverbial examples: driving by your house, down the street going to your house, up the street going into [or in] your house going through [or around] your house leaving from your house throwing at your house (Well, that relationship went downhill in a hurry.) Prepositional phrases can also indicate time relationships, as in these adverbial examples: Among the Prepositions | 55 We’ll meet after the film. We’ll meet at 8 pm. We’ll meet during the meeting. We’ll meet before dinner. We’ll meet for twenty minutes. We’ll meet until 8 pm. And some prepositional phrases are just creepy: The old house at the top of the hill The motel in the middle of nowhere The woman in the shower ADJECTIVAL OR ADVERBIAL? As we’ve just seen, prepositional phrases are used as adjectives or adverbs—that is, they’re used adjectivally or adverbially. Adjec- tival prepositional phrases usually follow the nouns they modify. The following sentences contain adjectival prepositional phrases, and we’ve underlined the entire phrase: The dog in the yard barked loudly. I read the first of three volumes. This is my letter to the principal. In each of the sentences above, the prepositional phrase modifies the noun it follows. In the sentences below, the adverbial prepositional phrases are underlined: I arrived at noon. I drove into the garage. I walked for exercise. I walked at a fast pace. 56 | Brehe’s Grammar Anatomy As adverbs, these prepositional phrases tell us when, where, why, or how the action of the verb was performed. We learned earlier that adverbs modifying verbs are often movable. In the sentences below, we see that some of the underlined adverbial prepositional phrases are also movable. Typically, the moveable phrases indicate time, place, or manner: The dog barked loudly in the yard. In the yard, the dog barked loudly. Little Ruthie practiced the violin for two hours. For two hours, little Ruthie practiced the violin. Mr. Lochenhocher would rather listen to the dog. I’ve heard Ruthie play, and I’m with Lochenhocher. We can’t move the adverbial prepositional phrases in the last two sentences. Sometimes the guidelines for distinguishing adverbial and adjectival phrases don’t work as well as we’d like. Here’s another example: We drove the car into the garage. Into the garage follows car, but the phrase obviously doesn’t modify car. Here the prepositional phrase is adverbial; it answers the question, “Where did you drive the car?” But this adverbial phrase is not moveable. We probably wouldn’t write Into the garage, we drove the car. When we’re trying to identify the function of the prepositional phrase, the most important point to consider is the meaning of Among the Prepositions | 57 the phrase. Does it reasonably apply to a noun or an action? What does it describe? In other words, sometimes prepositional phrases—and other structures—are grammatically ambiguous. Consider this: Steve read the book in the living room. Does in the living room describe the book Steve read? That is, he read the book that was in the living room. In that case, the phrase is adjectival. But it might be adverbial: Steve was in the living room when he read the book. The sentence can plausibly be read either way, which is not at all unusual. To clarify, we could rewrite it this way: In the living room, Steve read the book. Now the phrase is unmistakably adverbial. There’s more. Adverbial prepositional phrases can also modify adjectives and adverbs. Below, they modify the adjectives sure and careless: He was too sure of himself. He was careless with the dynamite. (By the way, both of the adjectives above are called predicate adjectives, which we’ll learn about later.) Next, these prepositional phrases modify the adverb far: Musial hit the ball far into left field. We steered the boat far from the dock. 58 | Brehe’s Grammar Anatomy In the four examples above, the prepositional phrases follow the words they modify. These adverbial uses are less common than those modifying verbs, and they are not moveable. CONCERNING AND REGARDING OTHERS Along with those we’ve seen so far, there are more one-word prepositions that are unusual, because they look like verbs. Specifically, they’re the –ing form of verbs. Here’s a list of common ones, with objects: barring bad weather including her concerning the budget pending your letter considering the circumstances respecting your question counting you regarding that issue excepting me saving one last preposition following the instructions touching the matter Some of these look like participles (which are –ing verbs used adjectivally, a category we examine in Chapter 17). They may have begun life that way. (Words sometimes go downhill like that.) Even the first list of prepositions contained one –ing word: during, with is a form of a verb we no longer use: dure, meaning endure. Other prepositions that look a bit like participles include given and notwithstanding: Given the weather, we should cancel the trip. Notwithstanding the weather, we’ll go anyway. Some authorities don’t accept all of the words above as prepositions. Among the Prepositions | 59 PHRASAL PREPOSITIONS This kind of preposition consists of a two-word phrase used as if it were one word. In the following examples, these phrasal prepositions are underlined: according to the Bible instead of Stephanie as for Steve out of flour because of the time owing to the weather depending on the weather up to you except for Patrick But grammatical categories can be porous, and sometimes au- thorities disagree about a word or phrase. Some grammar books and dictionaries identify the following phrases (or others like them) as prepositions: ahead of you contrary to opinion alongside of you due to him apart from you next to you away from you together with you close to you But there’s another way to analyze phrases like these. The first word could be read as an adjective or adverb depending on context, followed by a one-word preposition and its object (of you, from you, and the others). For example, the prepositional phrases in the following sen- tences are adverbial, modifying the adjectives and adverbs they follow: We are ahead of them. We are next to them. Events were contrary to expectations. We pulled alongside of the truck. 60 | Brehe’s Grammar Anatomy Some authorities classify the following three-word phrases (and a few others) as prepositions: by means of in back of in case of in charge of in front of in search of But in their usual contexts, these are better analyzed as a series of two prepositional phrases, as in these examples: By means of law, the project will be stopped. He is in charge of the unit. She is in front of the audience. Call me in case of an emergency. So we’ll claim that prepositions are never more than two words long. But don’t be surprised if you encounter grammar books and dictionaries that recognize some three-word English phrases as “phrasal prepositions” or “compound prepositions.” LA PRÉPOSITION One remaining sub-class of prepositions are words borrowed from Latin and French. You’ll encounter them seldom, but most have their uses in certain contexts. à la [meaning “in the manner of”] He attempted to write à la H. P. Lovecraft. bar [meaning “except for”] She is the best, bar none. circa [meaning “in approximately”] Chaucer was born circa 1340. Among the Prepositions | 61 cum [meaning “together with”] He has built an office cum workshop. per [meaning “for every”] This car gets twenty-one miles per gallon. re [meaning “about”] We are writing re your complaint. versus [meaning “against”; abbreviated v.] We studied the famous case of Griswold v. Connecticut. via [meaning “by way of”] We traveled via the Interminable Turnpike. vis-à-vis [meaning “compared with”] We will consider our expenses vis-à-vis our income. In general, avoid these prepositions unless the context justifies them. Using them carelessly makes you seem pretentious, and there are perfectly good English words and phrases that you can use instead. POINTS FOR WRITERS 1. Should you end a sentence with a preposition? One of the best-known rules of prescriptive grammar insists that we must never end sentences with prepositions. But, in fact, good professional writers do it all the time. You should be aware, however, that in formal contexts, some writers and editors regard sentences like the following as too informal or just plain wrong: 62 | Brehe’s Grammar Anatomy He is the person who I want you to give this to. This sentence troubles some readers for one or two reasons. First, the preposition to is no longer before its object, who. In fact, the preposition and its object are widely separated. Second, by the strictest rules of grammar, who should be whom. Some editors and writers would prefer this version of the sentence: He is the person to whom I want you to give this. Still other editors might find this corrected version excessively formal for some purposes and readers because of whom and the placement of the prepositional phrase. If necessary, we can usually rewrite an entire sentence to elim- inate problems like these, as the next two possible revisions show: Give this to him. He should get this. 2. Unnecessary prepositions. It’s always a mistake to add an unnecessary preposition to a sentence. Here are some examples: She got off of the train this morning. Where did you find her at? She was waiting beside of the station. These are not colossal errors, but deleting unnecessary words is always a good thing to do. Among the Prepositions | 63 EXERCISES 6a. In the following sentences underline the prepositional phrases and double-underline the preposition. Some sentences contain more than one prepositional phrase. If you need to, refer to the lists of prepositions in this chapter. 1. In the morning, I drink coffee with cream. 2. As a rule, I never put sugar in it. 3. Amid cars and trucks, Edwina ran across the street. 4. I am looking for the owner of this dog. 5. Are you referring to the dog that is nipping at your leg? 6. Throughout the book, the author emphasizes the influence of history upon our perception of events. 7. Like Arthur, I walked down the hall and paid no attention to the noise within the office. 8. According to Arthur, the noise out of the office was because of an argument between Ed and Grace. 9. Arthur should not have been left in charge of the office during the summer. 10. In case of further conflicts, we should make plans regarding appropriate training for all employees. 6b. After you finish Exercise 6a, go back through the ten sentences above and decide if the prepositional phrases are adjectival (ADJ) or adverbial (ADV), and label them accordingly. 64 | Brehe’s Grammar Anatomy Remember that adjectival prepositional phrases usually follow the nouns they modify and describe those nouns in some way. Adverbial prepositional phrases often follow the verb or appear at the beginning of the sentence. Adverbials tell us when, where, why, or how the action takes place. They are often moveable. 7 You and I and the Personal Pronouns Have we got a chapter for you. We’ve seen that nouns can be the simple subjects in sentences. There is another kind of word that can be a simple subject (and can play other roles in a sentence). It’s the pronoun: a word that takes the place of a noun that appeared earlier in the context. Common English pronouns include I, me, mine, you, yours, he, she, it, him, her, his, hers, and others. When a pronoun takes the place of a noun, the noun replaced is called the antecedent of the pronoun. The antecedent usually appears before (ante-) its pronoun. In the sentences that follow, the pronouns are underlined. Not all of them are subjects: Gershwin composed. He composed. (Gershwin is the antecedent of He.) George loves Ethel. He loves her. (George is the antecedent of He, and Ethel is the antecedent of her.) 66 | Brehe’s Grammar Anatomy Pearl painted Mr. Morton’s porch. She painted his porch. (Pearl is the antecedent of She, and Mr. Morton is the antecedent of his.) She enjoyed painting it. (Porch is the antecedent of it.) THE PERSONAL PRONOUNS There are thousands of nouns in English but only a few dozen pronouns, and those we use most are called the personal pro- nouns. All of the pronouns in the sentences above, and all that we discuss in this chapter, are personal pronouns. The following tables contain all of the personal pronouns in English, organized according to their several characteristics: Singular Personal Pronouns Nominative Objective Possessive First Person I me my, mine Second Person you you your, yours Third Person he, she, it him, her, it his, her, hers, its Notice that the third-person singular pronouns also have gender: he, she, or it. Plural Personal Pronouns Nominative Objective Possessive First Person we us our, ours Second Person you you your, yours Third Person they them their, theirs Among the Prepositions | 67 Notice that the possessive pronouns like yours, hers, and theirs don’t contain apostrophes. The tables also show us that all personal pronouns are classified by number, singular or plural. PRONOUNS AND PERSON All personal pronouns are also classified by person. If you’re referring to yourself with pronouns, you use first-person pro- nouns: I, me, my, and mine, or the plural forms we, us, our(s). If you’re referring to the person you’re speaking with, you use second-person pronouns: you and your(s). The plural forms are the same. If you’re referring to another person outside the conversation, you use third-person pronouns: he, she, it; him, her, it; and his, her, its (or the plurals they, them, their, and theirs) The third-person singular pronouns are also classified by gender: masculine (he, him, his), feminine (she, her, hers), and neuter (it, its). PRONOUNS AND CASE Finally, we classify personal pronouns by cases: the nomina- tive case, the possessive case, and the objective case. These terms are used all the time in discussions of language, so it’s help- ful to understand them. They refer to the forms of the pronouns that we use in certain positions in a sentence. The pronouns in the nominative case are the ones we use as subjects: I talked to Mr. Morton. You talked to Mr. Morton. 68 | Brehe’s Grammar Anatomy He talked to Mr. Morton. She talked to Mr. Morton. We talked to Mr. Morton. They talked to Mr. Morton, too, but he is still juggling vases. The pronouns in the possessive case are used to indicate possession, and most of the possessive pronouns have two forms: Hey, that’s my vase. (Or, That vase is mine.) Hey, that’s your vase. (Or, That vase is yours.) Hey, that’s his vase. (That vase is his.) Hey, that’s her vase. (Or, That vase is hers.) Hey, that’s our vase. (Or, That vase is ours.) Hey, that’s their vase. (Or, That vase is theirs.) Notice that there are no apostrophes in these –s possessives, or in its. This frequently confuses inexperienced writers. Apostro- phes show possession only with nouns: yours, ours, theirs, but children’s, women’s, Ruthie’s, Pearl’s, Mr. Morton’s. The pronouns in the objective case are used for almost every other purpose in a sentence. For example, when pronouns are the objects of prepositions, they are always in the objective case: I gave the book to Julie. I gave it to her. Mike said that I can ride with him. Give the vase to me. Give it to us. Give it to them. If we’re native speakers of English, we typically use the correct cases naturally. What we may have trouble remembering, as stu- dents of grammar, are terms for the three cases and the forms they describe. If you need to, you can learn this simple test sentence to help you remember the terms for the three cases of pronouns: Among the Prepositions | 69 N took O to P’s house. Here, obviously, N, O, and P stand for the three cases: nominative, objective, and possessive. Insert the right pronoun in each position, and you will know the case of the pronouns in question: He took her to their house. They took us to her house. We took them to his house. In each case, the first pronoun is nominative, the second objective, and the third possessive. The personal pronouns are the most important pronouns in English. We’ll examine other kinds later. BE TENSE! Because we’re learning about the matter of person in this chapter, it seems like a good time to return to verbs briefly, and to one in particular. The verb to be is the most frequently used verb in English, and it’s also the most irregular verb. Because its irregular forms are tied up with the matter of person, we’ll examine be in detail here. These are the simple tenses of be. Notice how the forms change in the first, second, and third person, as well as in the singular and plural: Singular Present Past Future 1st person I am I was I will be 2nd person You are You were You will be 3rd person He is He was He will be 70 | Brehe’s Grammar Anatomy Plural Present

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