BPSTRY1-UNIT-1.pdf

BPSTRY1 – BREAD AND PASTRY School of International Hospitality and Tourism Management UNIT 1. INTRODUCTION TO BAKING AND PASTRY Learning outcomes: Upon studying this unit you should be able to: Recognize the basic baking skills and general...

BPSTRY1 – BREAD AND PASTRY School of International Hospitality and Tourism Management UNIT 1. INTRODUCTION TO BAKING AND PASTRY Learning outcomes: Upon studying this unit you should be able to: Recognize the basic baking skills and general knowledge Explain common baking terms and processes. distinguish the importance of mise en place in baking discuss the importance of identifying the correct tools and equipment used in baking Identify the various ingredients used in baking and pastry, their uses and their functions in a recipe. 1.1 BAKING TERMINOLOGIES BAKING TERM DEFINITION Alternately add - to add a little of the dry ingredients into the batter first then a little of the liquid ingredients before beating until smooth. Start and end with the dry ingredients. Baine marie - baking using a hot water bath. A pan filled with batter is placed on a tray half-filled with water, then baked. Bake blind / blind - to bake a crust without a filling. The crust is weighed down with dry baking beans to prevent ballooning and to keep it shape. Batter - a mixture of dry and liquid ingredients with a pouring consistency Bavarian cream - a custard enriched with whipped cream and solidified with gelatin. A Bavarian cream can be flavoured with chocolate, coffee, fruit, or the like and is usually molded in a fancy shape and garnished with fruit or a sweet sauce. Bavarois - dessert containing gelatin and whipped cream, served cold. Caramelize - to melt sugar with or without water until it becomes golden brown in color and develops a characteristic flavor. Choux Pastry - also know as “pâte à choux” - a cooked batter created through the combination of liquid, fat, flour, and eggs. When finished, it is piped into various shapes that, once baked, expand and dry into crisp, hollow pastry Cream - to mix fat and sugar until smooth at the same time incorporating air into the mixture. Cremeux - means “creamy” in French, - crème anglaise emulsified with dark, milk or white chocolate. Crème Chantilly - refers to a sweetened whipped cream with added flavoring Crème Anglaise - also known as “English cream,” a light, sweetened pouring custard from French cuisine, used as a dessert cream or sauce. Crème Pâtissière - a filling for pastries that consists of an egg custard made with flour and flavorings. Also known as pastry cream, this filling is used for cakes, tarts, cream puffs, and éclairs. Cut in - to distribute fat in flour particles until pea-sized crumbs are obtained. They may be cone using a pastry blender, the times of a fork or 2 knives. Dacquoise - a dessert made from layers of meringue containing ground nuts, with fillings such as cream, buttercream, or ganache between. Diplomat cream - also known as “crème diplomate”. - a French classic cream filling, made by combining the vanilla pastry cream with heavy whipped cream. Dredge - to coat the surface with dry ingredient like flour. Drizzle - to sprinkle a surface with a liquid like syrup. Dust - to sprinkle a surface with flour or sugar. Egg wash - a combination of 1 egg yolk and 2 tablespoons milk used for brushing pastry and bread dough to have a shiny, golden baked surface. - Can also be in different ratio depending on the use, or just plain egg, just egg yolk, or egg and water  BPSTRY1 – BREAD AND PASTRY School of International Hospitality and Tourism Management Entremet - a French term for a fancy dessert with many different layers of cake and pastry creams, created in a mold and served cold. Filo pastry - also known “phyllo dough”, a very thin unleavened dough used for making pastries such as baklava and börek in Middle Eastern and Balkan cuisines. Filo-based pastries are made by layering many sheets of filo brushed with oil or butter; the pastry is then baked. Fold in - to mix delicately textured ingredients. Using a spatula cut down through the mixture; go across the bottom of the bowl and up over close to the surface while turning the bowl frequently. Gateau / Gateaux - a rich cake, typically one containing layers of cream or fruit Glaze - a glossy coating Greased - to brush a surface with butter, margarine shortening or oil to prevent sticking. Grease and flour - to brush a pan with fat or oil before dusting it with flour. Grease and line - to brush a fan with fat or oil before it is lined with wax paper or greaseproof paper. This is done for easy removal of baked cake. Let rise - to allow the yeast dough to ferment and double its volume. Pâte Brisée - French for “broken pastry,” is a crisp, tender, and buttery pie pastry that can be used for savory or sweet recipes. Pâte Sablée - French for “sandy dough”, a type of French pastry dough that is tender, crisp and more cookie like. Pâte Sucrée - French for “sugary dough”, a type of French pastry dough made with egg yolks, butter, flour, and sugar. Pipe out - to squeeze out a mixture from a pastry bag. Pre-bake - to bake a crust without the filling or to half-bake. Preheat - to light the oven about 10 minutes in advance to allow the oven temperature to reach a desired degree of heat before the caked is baked. Prick - to bore a hole in a cake to test if it is already done. It can also mean to makes holes on an unbaked pastry using a fork to prevent ballooning. - also known as pâte feuilletée, is a flaky light pastry made from a Puff pastry laminated dough composed of dough (détrempe) and butter or other solid fat (beurrage). The butter is put inside the dough (or vice versa), making a paton that is repeatedly folded and rolled out before baking. Punch down - to deflate risen dough using the fist to break down large air spaces. Reroll - to roll again after the filling has been spread. Tempering - to bring two liquids you plan to blend together to a similar temperature before combining them completely Tempering - heating and cooling chocolate to stabilize it for making candies and Chocolate confections gives chocolate a smooth and glossy finish, keeps it from easily melting on your fingers, and allows it to set up beautifully for dipped and chocolate-covered treats. Tint - to add color. Torte - is a rich, usually multilayered, cake that is filled with whipped cream, buttercreams, mousses, jams, or fruit. Until done - meaning the cake is already at the center comes out clean; when the top spring’s baked. Scald - to heat almost to the boiling point. Sour milk - milk to which vinegar, lemon or kalamansi juice has been added. For every cup of milk add 1 tablespoon of vinegar, lemon or kalamansi juice. Thread-like - stage where sugar syrup when dropped from a spoon spins a thread. Viennoiseries - The meeting point between a pastry and a bread. - Another term used for yeasted products that are sweetened with sugar are enriched with butter and eggs. - These pastry products are usually served during breakfast and are not intended for desserts  BPSTRY1 – BREAD AND PASTRY School of International Hospitality and Tourism Management 1.2 MEASUREMENTS & CONVERSIONS ABBREVIATIONS AND SYMBOLS C = Cup K. = Kilo t, tsp = Teaspoon Kg. = Kilogram T, tbsp = Tablespoon g = Gram Oz. = Ounce L. = Liter Lb. = Pound mL = milliliter pt. = Pint Cc = Cubic centimeter qt. = Quart oC = Degrees Centigrade gal. = Gallon oF = Degrees Fahrenheit MEASUREMENTS AND THEIR EQUIVALENTS 1 tablespoon (t or tbsp) = 3 teaspoons (t or tsp) 2 tablespoons = 1/8 cup 4 tablespoons = ¼ cup 5 1/3 tablespoons = 1/3 cup ¾ cups plus 2 tablespoons = 7/8 cup 16 tablespoons = 1 cup 2 cups = 1 pint 4 cups = 1 quart 16 ounces = 1 pound COMMON UNITS OF WEIGHT 1 pound (1lb) = 453.59 grams 1 ounce. = 28.35 grams 1 kilogram (kg) = 2.21 grams 1 gram =.035 ounces 1 medium orange = ¼ to ½ cup (slice) 1 medium apple = 1 cup (slice) 14 oz. can condensed milk = 1 ¼ cups 14 oz. can evaporated milk = 1 2/3 cups 1 lb brown sugar = 2 ¼ cups (packed) 1 lb confectioner sugar = 3 ½ cups 1 lb granulated sugar = 2 ½ cups 1 lb nuts = 4 ½ cups 1 lb dried nuts = 2 cups COMMON UNITS OF VOLUME 1 bushed (bu) = 4 pecks 1 peck (pk) = 8 quarts 1 gallon (gal) = 4 quarts 1 quart = 2 pints 4 teaspoons (tsp) = 4.9 milliliters (ml) 1 tablespoon (tbsp) = ½ fluid ounce 15 ounce raisings = 3 cups 1 pint whipping cream = 2 cups whipping cream  BPSTRY1 – BREAD AND PASTRY School of International Hospitality and Tourism Management Measurements and Equivalents of other Baking Ingredients 1 pound butter or shortening = 2 cups 1 square chocolate = 1 ounce ¼ cup cocoa plus 2 tsps shortening = 1 square chocolate 1 cup eggs = 5 medium eggs 1 cup egg whites = 8 medium eggs 1 cup egg yolks = 12-14 eggs 1 pound cheese = 4 cups shredded cheese 8 ounce cream cheese, cottage cheese = 3 tbsps juice 1.3 TOOLS AND EUIPMENTS IDENTIFICATION 1.3.1 SCALING AND MEASURING TOOLS In baking, even more so than in cooking, precise measurement of ingredients is vital to the success of the product. Precise measurements are crucial both to keep costs in line and to ensure consistency of quality and quantity. Measurements are taken of weight, volume, temperature, distance or length, and density. A. Scales 1. Beam balance (or baker’s) scales have two platforms attached on either end of a beam. 2. Spring scales have a platform set on top of a pedestal that contains a spring mechanism for weighing and a dial indicator on the front. 3. Digital scales have a stainless-steel platform set on an electronic base with a digital display. B. Volume Measures 1. Graduated pitchers or beakers and measuring cups and spoons are commonly used in the bakeshop to measure liquids and pourable ingredients. Pitchers and cups are scaled off with lines or markings to show varying measures. 2. Dry measuring cups are commonly used in recipes written for the home baker. In the bakeshop, they are used to measure small amounts of certain dry ingredients, such as salt, spices, and baking soda. C. Thermometers 1. Instant-read thermometers are available with both dial and digital readouts. 2. Digital thermometers typically measure a wider range of temperatures more accurately than dial type thermometers can, and they are usually more accurate when measuring shallow liquids. 3. Stem-type thermometers are excellent for checking the internal temperature of products such as doughs or custards; they can also be used to check the temperature of liquids. 4. Candy (or sugar or deep-fat) thermometers may be calibrated in degrees only; others also indicate the most commonly used temperatures for sugar cooking (such as thread, soft ball, and hard crack). 1.3.2 CUTTING TOOLS A. Knives 1. French knife or chef’s knife. It is the most frequently used knife in the kitchen for general purposes. 2. Utility knife or salad knife. It is a narrow, pointed knife 6 to 8 inches long and used mostly for pantry work, cutting and preparing fruits and vegetables. 3. Paring knife. It is small pointed blade 2 to 4 inches long and is used for trimming and paring vegetables and fruits. 4. Serrated slicer. Its like a slicer, but with serrated edge used for cutting breads, cakes and similar items.  BPSTRY1 – BREAD AND PASTRY School of International Hospitality and Tourism Management 5. Vegetable peeler. It is a short tool with a slotted, swiveling blade; used for peeling vegetables and fruits. 6. Steel. Not a knife but an essential part of the knife kit; used for truing and maintaining knife edges. 1.3.3 HAND TOOLS and SMALL UTENSILS 1. Ball cutter, melon baller or parissiene knife. The blade is small, cup-shaped half sphere used for cutting fruits and vegetables into small balls. 2. Straight spatula or palette knife. It is a long, flexible blade with rounded ends used mostly for spreading icing on cakes and for mixing and bowl scrapping. 3. Offset spatula. It is a broad blade, bent to keep the hand off hot surfaces; it is used for turning and lifting eggs, pancakes and meats on griddles, grills, sheet pans, and so on. 4. Rubber spatula or scrapper. It is a broad, flexible rubber or plastic tip on a long handle used to scrape bowls and pans. 5. Pie server. It is a wedge-shaped offset spatula used for lifting pie wedges from the pan. 6. Bench scrapper or dough knife. It is a broad, flexible rubber or plastic tip on a long handle used to scrape workbenches. 7. Pastry wheel or wheel knife. It is a round; rotating blade on a handle used for cutting rolled-out dough’s and pastry and baked pizza. 8. Tongs. Spring-type or scissors-type tools used to pick up and handle foods. 9. Wire whip. It is loops of stainless-steel wire fastened to a handle. 10. China cap. It is cone-shaped strainer for straining stocks, soups, sauces and other liquids. 11. Strainer. It is a round-bottomed, cup-shaped tool made of screen-type mesh or perforated metal used for straining pasta, vegetables and so on. 12. Sieve. It is a screen-type mesh supported in a round metal frame used for sitting flour and other dry ingredients. 13. Colander. It is a large perforated bowl made of stainless steel used to drain washed or cooked vegetables, salad greens, pasta and other foods. 14. Grater. It is a four-sided metal box with grids of varying sizes. It is used for shredding and grating vegetables, cheese, citrus, rinds and other foods. 15. Zester. It is small hand tool used for removing the colored part if citrus peels in thin strips.. 16. Pastry bag and tubes. It is a cone-shaped cloths or plastic bags with an open end that can be fitted with metal tubes or tips of various shaped and sizes. It is used for shaping and decorating with items such as cake icing, whipped cream, duchesse potatoes and soft dough. 17. Pastry brush. It is used to brush items with egg wash, glaze, etc. 18. Can Opener. Heavy-duty can openers are mounted on the edge of the workbench. 19. Piping tips are generally made of nickel-plated metal and are stamped with a numerical identification code. 20. Cake and decorating combs are used to make designs by creating a pattern of lines in the icing coating a cake or pastry. 21. Rolling pins are used to flatten and thin doughs such as yeasted bread, pastry, tart, and cookie doughs, puff pastry, and marzipan. 22. Pastry docker is used to quickly and cleanly pierce air holes in rolled sheets of dough before baking blind 23. Cookie cutters are used to stamp out individual cookies from rolled doughs. 1.3.4 BAKING PANS and RACKS 1. Wire cooling racks are grates made of heavy-gauge chrome-plated steel wire. 2. Turntables for cake decorating consist of a pedestal topped with a round platform 12 in/30 cm in diameter to hold the cake or pastry as you work.  BPSTRY1 – BREAD AND PASTRY School of International Hospitality and Tourism Management 3. Loaf pans, or tins, are oblong or rectangular pans used to bake pound cakes, other loaf cakes, and quick breads, as well as loaves of yeast-raised bread. 4. Sheet pans/cookie sheet/baking sheet - In the pastry kitchen or bakery, they are used for baking cookies and sheet cakes, among other things. 5. Cake pans are made in various materials, including glass, silicone, tinned steel, and aluminum (with or without a nonstick coating). 6. Spring-form pans - The ring of a springform pan is joined with a clip closure that creates tension when closed and holds the removable bottom in place.\ 7. Pie pans are round pans with sloping sides, commonly made from glass, earthenware, or metal (with or without nonstick coating). 8. Tart pans have fluted sides and removable bottoms. They may be round, square, or rectangular 9. Tartlet pans are most commonly made of tinned steel, with or without a nonstick coating. They come in various shapes and may have removable or fixed bottoms. 10. Tube center pan. This is deeper than a round pan with a hollow center. 11. Muffin pans - with large, medium or small cups for baking cupcakes, muffins, tarts or pastry cups (2” across). 1. 3.5 COLD FOOD STORAGE EQUIPMENT 1. Up-right freezer The first advantage of an upright freezer (combined or stand- alone) is space saving. Because they are higher than chest versions they occupy less floor space. Another advantage of their height is that more food is at eye level. Another advantage pf their height is that more food is easily reachable because the compartment are stacked. 2. Chest type freezer. The main disadvantage of a chest freezer is that it is difficult to get to food stored at the bottom of the freezer. Chest freezers occupy more floor space when compared to an upright version. Remember also that the chest freezers are always stand alone and are not sold as a part of a fridge or freezer combination. Chest freezers’ main advantage is the price. They are approximately half the price when compared to other freezers of similar capacity. 3. Walk-in freezer Walk-in coolers and walk-in freezers are enclosed storage spaces that can be walked into. Walk-in coolers operate above 320F and at or below 55oF and walk-in freezers operate at or below 32oF. 1.3.6 BAKING & PASTRY EQUIPMENT A. OVENS 1. Conventional oven. This operates simply by heating air in an enclosed space. 2. Convection oven. It contains fans that circulate the air and distribute the heat rapidly throughout the interior. 3. Slow-Cook-and-Hold oven. The traditional oven which is nothing more than a heated box equipped with thermostat. 4. Combination Steamer oven/ Combi oven. Relatively a new kind that can be operated in three modes: as a convection oven, as a convection steamer and with both functions on at once, as a high-humidity oven.. 5. Microwave ovens. In this oven, special tubes generate radiations, which creates heat inside the food. B. PROCESSING EQUIPMENT 1. Mixers are important and versatile tools for many kinds of foods mixing and processing jobs, both in the bakeshop and in the kitchen. (hand mixer, stand-alone mixer, heavy duty mixer)  BPSTRY1 – BREAD AND PASTRY School of International Hospitality and Tourism Management 2. Slicer is valuable machine because it slices more evenly and uniformly than what can be done by hand. 3. Food Processor are used to chop or puree foods, including raw or cooked meats, and to mix or emulsify such items as sauces and flavored butter. 4. Blender is used to mix, puree and emulsify liquids such as soup, sauces and batters. It also used in bars and coffeehouses to prepare certain drinks. 5. Immersion blender is a handled or portable blender than can be used in pureeing soups or smoothing sauces straight in the saucepan. Some models include wire whip attachment aside from the cutter or blade. C. PROOFERS For professional bread bakers in a high-volume operation, a proofer is an essential piece of equipment. Proofers maintain the most desirable environment for yeast growth. In this way, they help to maintain production schedules and ensure that items are of uniform quality. D. ICE CREAM MACHINES 1. Simple hand-cranked or electric ice cream machines have a motor that either turns the paddle within the cooling chamber or rotates the chamber around the paddle. The bowl is usually removable and must be frozen for at least 12 hours before use. Bowls range from 6 to 9 in/15 to 23 cm in diameter and up to 6½ in/16 cm tall. These machines can produce up to a quart of ice cream per batch. 2. Commercial ice cream makers have built-in refrigeration units to make large-scale production of ice cream and other frozen confections possible. There are two basic types: continuous and batch. With a continuous ice cream freezer, the ice cream base is fed continuously into the machine at a high rate of speed. This type of machine allows for control of overrun, viscosity, and temperature of the finished product 1.4 INGREDIENT IDENTIFICATION) 1.4.1 FLOUR, GRAINS AND MEALS Whole grains - grains that have not been milled. They usually have a shorter shelf life than milled grains. Milled grains - polished to remove the germ, bran, and hull. They may have a longer shelf life than whole grains, but some of their nutritive value is lost during processing. Wheat Each flour has its own characteristics, but wheat flour is the most common type used in the bakeshop. It is the only flour that contains enough gluten-forming proteins to provide the structure essential to baked goods. The wheat kernel is made up of the following components: Bran constitutes 14.5% of total kernel weight. The bran is the dark outer coating of the wheat kernel and contains large amounts of insoluble dietary fiber. Endosperm comprises 83 percent of total kernel weight. The endosperm is the internal portion of the wheat kernel and contains the largest amount of protein and starch. White flour is produced from the endosperm. Germ is 2.5 percent of total kernel weight. The germ is the embryo of the wheat kernel and contains fats, vitamins, minerals, and some protein. Types of flour All-purpose flour is a blend of hard and soft wheat flours milled from the endosperm of the wheat kernel; the specific blend varies from region to region. Southern all-purpose flour generally has more soft wheat than all-purpose flours in other parts of the United States. The protein content in all- purpose flour can range from 8 to 12 percent.  BPSTRY1 – BREAD AND PASTRY School of International Hospitality and Tourism Management Bread flour, also known as patent flour, is a hard wheat flour made from the endosperm, and is used for breads and soft rolls. Its protein content ranges from 11 to 13 percent. Cake flour is a soft wheat flour with a protein content ranging from 6 to 9 percent. It is used for cakes and cookies. Clear flour, a hard wheat flour made from the endosperm, has a darker color than bread or high-gluten flour and is typically used in rye breads. The protein content of clear flour ranges from 13 to 15 percent. Durum flour, milled from the endosperm of the durum wheat kernel, is a hard wheat flour used in bread making. Its protein content ranges from 12 to 14 percent. High-gluten flour is milled from the entire endosperm; it is used for bagels and hard rolls. Its protein content is typically 13 to 14 percent. Pastry flour has a protein content ranging from 8 to 10 percent. It is used for pie crust dough, muffins, and some biscuits, as well as pastries. Semolina is a more coarsely ground durum wheat flour, used most typically in pasta making. Whole wheat flour is a hard wheat flour milled from the entire wheat kernel, including the bran and germ; because the germ is high in lipids (fats), whole wheat flour can quickly become rancid. Its protein content ranges from 14 to 16 percent. Rye Rye flour behaves quite differently from wheat flour in baking, although rye kernels are milled in a manner similar to that used for wheat kernels. White rye flour is the mildest-flavored and lightest colored rye flour, with a protein content of 8 to 10 percent. Medium rye flour has a slightly higher protein content, 9 to 11 percent, and is somewhat darker. Dark rye flour, which is milled from the outer portion of the endosperm, has a protein content of 14 to 17 percent. Pumpernickel flour (or rye meal) is a coarse grind made from the entire rye kernel, with an intense flavor and a dark color. Other Grains and Cereals Oats are cleaned, toasted, and hulled before use. Cleaned whole oats are referred to as oat groats. Oat flour is made from oat groats ground into a fine powder; it contains no gluten. Steel-cut oats (also called Scotch, Scottish, or Irish oats) are milled by cracking oat groats into smaller pieces. Rolled oats, sometimes called old-fashioned oats, are made by steaming and flattening oat groats. Instant oats are cracked oat groats that are precooked, dried, and rolled. Buckwheat is not a type of wheat, but a cereal grain that has a distinctive strong, nutty wholegrain flavor and a relatively high fat content. Buckwheat may be roasted or unroasted. Roasted buckwheat groats, sold as kasha, have an intense flavor. Unroasted groats have a slightly milder flavor. Both are also milled into meal or flour. Rice o During processing, rice is polished to remove some or all of the bran. o White rice has had all the bran removed, while brown rice is only partially polished, leaving behind some of the bran. o Rice is categorized generally by the length of the grain: short, medium, or long. o Rice flour is made by grinding white, brown, or sweet rice. It has a mild flavor and is commonly used to make gluten-free baked goods. 1.4.2 SUGARS, SYRUPS, AND OTHER SWEETENER Granulated sugar is pure refined sucrose derived from either sugarcane or sugar beets. Granulated sugar has small, evenly sized crystals, and it is the most commonly  BPSTRY1 – BREAD AND PASTRY School of International Hospitality and Tourism Management used sugar in the bakeshop. Superfine sugar has very small crystals and dissolves quickly. It is sometimes used in cake batters and meringues Sanding sugar has large crystals and is used primarily to decorate baked goods. Pearl or decorating sugar has large pearl-shaped crystals and is also used as a decoration. Brown sugar is granulated sugar with added molasses. Light brown sugar has a mild molasses flavor; dark brown sugar, which contains more molasses, has a more pronounced flavor. Store brown sugar in an airtight container to prevent loss of moisture. Turbinado sugar is a coarse-grained partially refined sugar with a light brown color and a very mild molasses taste. Confectioners’ sugar, also called powdered sugar or icing sugar, is granulated sugar ground to a powder, with cornstarch added (up to 3 percent by weight) to keep it from caking. Confectioners’ sugar is available in different grades of fineness (the number in the name reflects the mesh size of the screen used to sift the powdered sugar); 10X sugar is finer than 6X sugar. Isomalt is a white crystalline “sugar-free” sweetener made from sucrose, used in diabetic baking. Because it does not break down when heated and absorbs very little water, some pastry chefs like to use isomalt for pulled sugar work. Corn syrup is produced from cornstarch. It contains 15 to 20 percent dextrose (glucose), other sugars, water, and often flavorings has been clarified to give it its light color; dark corn syrup includes refiner’s syrup a. Light corn syrup nd caramel color and flavor, giving it a darker color and a molasses flavor. Corn syrup resists crystallization, making it suitable for some confectionery work. Glucose syrup is 42 DE corn syrup used in icings, confections, and pulled sugar work. Molasses is a thick, dark brown liquid by-product of sugar refining; it contains sucrose and invert sugars. Molasses has a rich flavor but it is less sweet than sugar. Molasses is available as light, dark, or blackstrap. 1.4.3 THICKERS, GELLING AGENTS AND STARCHES Thickeners A Thickener is any ingredient that is capable of gelling, stabilizing, or thickening. The list of thickeners used in the bakeshop includes gelatin, pectin, plant gums such as agar-agar, and starches. Gelling Agents Gelatin is a protein processed from the bones, skin, and connective tissue of animals. It may be used as a gelling agent, thickener, stabilizer, emulsifier, or foaming agent. It is available in granulated and sheet forms. Sheet gelatin is sold in different bloom strengths, or gauges, but as there is no universal standard of identification, the strengths of different gauge numbers may vary depending on manufacturer. Pectin is a gelling agent that occurs naturally in many fruits. It is produced commercially by extraction from citrus or apple skins. Pectin is the gelling agent commonly used in jams, jellies, and preserves. It is also used to make the centers of high-quality jelly beans. Starches Processed and refined starches are used to thicken and stabilize liquid mixtures. They result in a range of textures and consistencies once they set into a gel. Arrowroot, which is sometimes known as arrowroot flour, is derived from the arrowroot plant, a tropical tuber. It is often used for thickening sauces because of the transparent and high-gloss finish it yields. Potato starch comes from potatoes that are cooked, dried, and then ground into a fine powder; it may also be called potato flour.  BPSTRY1 – BREAD AND PASTRY School of International Hospitality and Tourism Management Cornstarch, ground from corn kernels, is used primarily as a thickener, but it is also sometimes used in conjunction with wheat flour to yield softer results in baked goods. Tapioca is derived from the root of the tropical cassava plant, also called manioc. It is available as flakes, granules, and, most commonly, small balls or pellets (called pearl tapioca), and flour; the flour or starch is sometimes called cassava or manioc flour or starch. Modified (or converted) starches are modified through a process involving an acid and hydrolysis. The starches produced in this manner function more efficiently as thickeners for frozen items that will be thawed, as they resist separation. 1.4.4 DAIRY PRODUCTS Milk, cream, and butter are among the dairy products used daily in most bakeshops and pastry kitchens. Customarily, containers and packages are dated to indicate how long the contents will remain fresh. When storing dairy products, flavor transfer is a particular concern. Store milk, cream, and butter away from foods with strong odors. Wrap cheeses carefully, both to maintain their texture and to prevent their aromas from permeating other foods. Milk and Cream Milk is labeled according to its milk fat content. Whole milk contains at least 3 percent milk fat. Reduced-fat milk contains 2 percent milk fat, Low-fat milk contains 1 percent, and fat-free milk contains less than 0.1 percent. Heavy or whipping cream must contain at least 35 percent milk fat, and is used for whipping. Light cream has between 16 and 32 percent milk fat, and it does not whip easily. It is sometimes used instead of milk to add a richer flavor and creamier texture. Half and half is a mixture of half milk and half cream that typically contains between 10 to 12% milk fat. It cannot be whipped. Evaporated milk is whole or fat-free milk that is heated in a vacuum to remove 60 percent of its water content. Sweetened condensed milk is evaporated milk that has been sweetened. It is sold in cans of varying sizes. Non-fat dry milk (milk powder) is made by removing the water from de-fatted milk. Sold in boxes, it does not contain any milk fat and can be stored at room temperature. Fermented and Cultured Milk Products Buttermilk was traditionally the by-product of churning milk into butter. Most buttermilk sold today is nonfat milk to which a bacterial strain has been added and, despite its name, contains only a very small amount of butterfat. Buttermilk has a thick texture and a slightly sour flavor. Sour cream is cultured cream with 16 to 22 percent fat. Low-fat and nonfat versions of sour cream are also available. Yogurt is a cultured milk product made from whole, low-fat, or nonfat milk; it may be plain or flavored. Greek yogurt is strained and has a thicker consistency than conventional yogurt. It is available in whole, low-fat, or nonfat varieties and can be plain or flavored. Crème fraîche is made by adding an acid to cream that has 30 percent milk fat. The acid thickens the cream but does not cause it to ferment, so crème fraîche has a sweet flavor. Its high fat content gives it a velvety texture. Cheeses Cheeses may be categorized in many ways. Included here are only a few cheeses that are well suited to and commonly used in baking. Soft cheeses usually have a high moisture content and are relatively perishable. Farmer and baker’s cheeses are cow’s milk cheeses with a mild, tart flavor and soft, grainy texture.  BPSTRY1 – BREAD AND PASTRY School of International Hospitality and Tourism Management Ricotta cheese is a cow’s milk cheese with a very mild, delicate flavor; it can be drained to produce a drier, grainy cheese. Ricotta impastata is a smooth, spoonable, dry cheese used when regular ricotta would add too much moisture to a formula, such as cannoli filling. Cream cheese has a mild, slightly tangy taste and a soft, spreadable texture. The reduced-fat cream cheese sometimes called Neufchâtel (not to be confused with French Neufchâtel, a soft unripened cheese) has less fat than regular cream cheese, but it also has more moisture. Mozzarella cheese, made from either cow’s or water buffalo’s milk, has a mild, slightly tangy flavor and a soft, creamy, slightly elastic texture. Mozzarella is sold fresh or aged, in balls or blocks; it is also available grated. Cheddar cheese is a dry semi-firm cheese made from cow’s milk. During manufacture it undergoes a cheddaring process where the curds are piled and pressed, which causes the expulsion of whey and allows for the development of characteristic Cheddar texture. Cheddar cheese originated in England, but is now commonly made in America and elsewhere. Parmesan cheese (Parmigiano-Reggiano) is a very hard, crumbly grating cheese. It gets its special flavor and texture from an extended aging period, during which it dries and develops an intense pungency. Butter The best-quality butter has a sweet flavor, similar to fresh heavy cream; if salt has been added, it should be barely detectable. The color of butter will vary depending upon the breed of cow, the diet of the cow, and the time of year, but is typically a pale yellow. Both salted and unsalted butter are available. The designation “sweet butter” indicates only that the butter is made from sweet cream (as opposed to sour). If unsalted butter is desired, be sure that the word “unsalted” appears on the package. 1.4.5 OILS AND SHORTENINGS Vegetable oils are often neutral in flavor and color and have relatively high smoking points. If the label does not specify a source, the oil is usually a blend of oils. o Canola oil (or rapeseed oil) is a light, golden colored oil extracted from rapeseeds; it is low in saturated fat. o Corn oil is a mild-flavored refined oil, medium yellow in color, inexpensive, and versatile. o Soybean oil has a pronounced flavor and aroma; it is found primarily in blended vegetable oils and margarines. Olive oils vary in heaviness and may be pale yellow to deep green, depending on the particular fruit and the processing method. o Cold-pressed olive oil is superior in flavor to thermally refined oil. o The finest olive oil available is extra-virgin olive oil, with a naturally low level of acid, typically less than 1 percent. o Virgin olive oil, also known as pure olive oil, is the next-best grade. Nut oils have rich aromas. They are usually more perishable than vegetable or olive oils. Store them under refrigeration to keep them fresh, and use them within a few weeks of opening for the best flavor. Oil sprays are vegetable oils (usually blended) packaged in pump or aerosol spray containers. They are used for lightly coating pans and griddles. Hydrogenated shortenings are produced from liquid fats that have been chemically altered under pressure with purified hydrogen to make them solid at room temperature. Shortening may contain some animal fats unless specifically labeled as vegetable shortening. Emulsifying shortening or high-ratio shortening is a hydrogenated shortening that contains monoglycerides and other agents so that it better absorbs and retains  BPSTRY1 – BREAD AND PASTRY School of International Hospitality and Tourism Management moisture in baked goods. Emulsifying shortening is used in recipes where the amount of sugar and liquids is proportionally greater than the flour. Other Fats Margarine is a solid fat made with hydrogenated vegetable oils and milk, either liquid or milk solids. Regular margarines contain 80 percent fat. Margarine may also contain salt, artificial flavorings, and preservatives. A wide variety of margarines is available, from regular to whipped to reduced-fat and cholesterol- lowering blends, in sticks, blocks, or tubs. Lard is made from rendered pork fat. It is processed and hydrogenated to make it solid. It may also be treated to neutralize its flavor. 1.4.6 CHOCOLATE The extraction and processing of chocolate from cacao beans is a lengthy and complex process. The first stage involves crushing the kernels into a paste; at this point it is completely unsweetened and is called chocolate liquor. The liquor is then further ground to give it a smoother, finer texture, and sweeteners and other ingredients may be added. The liquor may also be pressed to force out most of the cocoa butter. The solids that are left are ground into cocoa powder. Cocoa butter is combined with chocolate liquor to make baking and eating chocolates, or it may simply be flavored and sweetened to make white chocolate. Cocoa butter also has numerous pharmaceutical and cosmetic uses. Types of Chocolate Cocoa powder is a powdered chocolate product with a cocoa butter content ranging from 10 to 25 percent. Dutch-process cocoa powder, which is 22 to 24 percent cocoa butter, has been treated with an alkali to reduce its acidity. Dutch- process cocoa powder is darker in color than natural cocoa powder. Unsweetened chocolate (also known as bitter or baking chocolate) contains no sugar. It is approximately 95 percent chocolate liquor and 5 percent cocoa butter. Bittersweet chocolate typically contains at least 50 percent chocolate liquor, 15 percent cocoa butter, and 35 to 50 percent sugar. Semisweet chocolate usually contains at least 35 percent chocolate liquor, 15 percent cocoa butter, and 40 percent sugar. This chocolate may be used interchangeably with bittersweet in most recipes. Couverture chocolate contains 15 percent chocolate liquor, 35 percent cocoa butter, and 50 percent sugar. Its high fat content makes it ideal for coating candy, pastries, and cakes. milk chocolate is 10 percent chocolate liquor, 20 percent cocoa butter, 50 percent sugar, and 15 percent milk solids. Sweet chocolate is 15 percent chocolate liquor, 15 percent cocoa butter, and 70 percent sugar. Both milk and sweet chocolates often contain other added ingredients and flavors. White chocolate is made from cocoa butter, sugar, flavorings, and milk. Since 2004, “white chocolate” has had its own standards set by the U.S. Food and Drug Administration. Confectionery coating is a chocolate product containing no cocoa butter. Confectionery coating is made with vegetable fats and requires no tempering prior to use. It is also referred to as summer coating or compound chocolate. Confectionery coating is available in a range of flavors such as milk chocolate and bittersweet chocolate. 1.4.7 LEAVENERS There are many different ways in which a baked product may be leavened. Some are leavened through the use of a technique or method, others by the addition of an ingredient, and others still by a combination of the two. Yeast  BPSTRY1 – BREAD AND PASTRY School of International Hospitality and Tourism Management o Active dry yeast is dehydrated, dormant yeast granules. It requires a warm liquid to activate it. Active dry yeast should be stored in an airtight container in the refrigerator or freezer. o Rapid rise yeast is a type of dehydrated yeast formulated to provide a quick rise. It is extremely active once rehydrated and dies quickly. Rapid rise yeast should be stored in an airtight container in the refrigerator or freezer. o Instant dry yeast is derived from cultures that can ferment using both beet sugar and malt sugar, guaranteeing fermentation activity through all phases of the dough. It can be used without rehydration. When working with instant dry yeast, very cold or ice water should be used in the mixing process. o Compressed fresh yeast is a highly perishable yeast product. It should have a moist, firm texture and show no discoloration or dry, crumbly spots. Store it under refrigeration. Chemical Leaveners o Baking powder is a mixture of bicarbonate of soda and an acid (the leavening agents) and a starch. It may be double- or single-acting. o Baking soda is sodium bicarbonate. It requires both an acid and moisture in order to leaven a product. 1.4.8 FLAVORINGS Salt Table salt may be iodized, meaning it contains added iodine, a preventive against goiter, or noniodized. Its small, dense, grains adhere poorly to food, dissolve slowly in solution, and are difficult to blend. Kosher salt is a coarse salt that weighs less by volume than table salt. It dissolves more readily and adheres better to food. Sea salt is collected through the evaporation of natural saltwater. Rock salt, also known as bay salt, is a very coarse salt used in crank ice cream makers. It may have a gray tint from the impurities it contains. Rock salt is generally not manufactured for consumption. Herbs, Spices, and Flavorings Herbs may be used either fresh or dried; note that dried herbs have increased potency. Spices may be used whole or ground. They maintain freshness better if they are stored whole. Extracts are commonly derived from herbs, spices, and nuts. They are prepared in an alcohol- based solution. Extracts can lose their potency with prolonged exposure to air, heat, or light. Herbs Basil belongs to the mint family. It has green pointed leaves and a pungent licorice flavor. It may be used fresh or dried. Chive belongs to the onion family and has a mild onion flavor. It has long, slender light green stems and lavender-colored flowers, both of which are edible and used commonly in culinary applications. Dill has blue-green thread-like foliage and yellow feathery flowers that produce small brown seeds, all of which are edible; the seeds have the most pungent flavor. Mint comes in many varieties. Peppermint has a strong flavor. It is available fresh, dried, or as an extract. Spearmint has gray-green leaves and a milder flavor than peppermint. Oregano belongs to the mint family. It has small oval leaves. Oregano and marjoram are similar in flavor, but oregano is stronger. Both may be used fresh or dried. Parsley has a mild, peppery flavor. Its leaves may be curly or flat, depending on the variety. It is available fresh or dried, but is primarily used as a fresh herb. Rosemary is another member of the mint family, with leaves shaped like pine needles. It has a resin-like aroma and flavor and is available fresh, dried, or ground. Spices Allspice is the dried berry of the pimiento tree. Its flavor is reminiscent of cinnamon, nutmeg, and cloves. It is available whole or ground.  BPSTRY1 – BREAD AND PASTRY School of International Hospitality and Tourism Management Caraway seeds are sometimes labeled “kummel.” They are available whole or ground. Cardamom is a plant in the ginger family. Each of its pods contains fifteen to twenty small seeds. Cardamom has a pungent aroma and a sweet and spicy flavor. It is available as whole pods or ground. Cinnamon is the stripped dried bark of an evergreen in the laurel family. It is sold whole (in sticks) or ground. Cloves are the dried unopened buds of a tropical evergreen tree. They have a strong flavor. Cloves are available whole or ground. Nutmeg is the seed of the nutmeg tree. It has a sweet and spicy flavor and is available either whole or ground. Flavorings Vanilla beans are the pods of a delicate orchid flower. Vanilla has a distinct aromatic flavor. Vanilla is available as whole beans and as an extract. Vanilla is also available commercially in powder and paste forms. Garlic is the bulb of the garlic plant; each bulb is made up of seven to twelve cloves. It is available fresh, powdered, or granulated. Ginger is the rhizome of the ginger plant. It has a pungent, hot flavor. It is available fresh, in dried pieces, ground, or crystallized. Extracts The pastry chef and baker use a variety of flavoring extracts for cooking and baking. Many different herbs, spices, nuts, and fruits are used to prepare extracts, which are alcohol based. Common extracts include vanilla, lemon, mint, and almond. Extracts can lose their potency if exposed to air, heat, or light. To preserve their flavor, store in tightly capped dark glass jars or bottles away from heat or direct light. Wines, Cordials, and Liqueurs A general rule of thumb for selecting wines, cordials, and liqueurs for use in cooking and baking is that if it is not suitable for drinking, it is not suitable for cooking. Brandies (including fruit brandies and Cognac), Champagne, dry red and white wines, port, Sauternes, sherry, stout, ale, beer, and sweet and dry vermouth, as well as liquors and liqueurs such as bourbon, crème de cassis, kirschwasser, gin, Kahlúa, rum, and Scotch are all useful in the bakeshop. Coffee and Tea Coffee and tea may be used to infuse flavor in countless pastry and confection preparations. Tea is most often used to infuse its flavor into a warm liquid that will be added to the item, whereas coffee may be used in its many forms to add its flavor. Coffee beans, ground or whole, may be used to infuse their flavor as is done with tea. Powdered or instant coffee is often dissolved in a small amount of water or other liquid to form a paste that is then added directly to the formula. Nuts Nuts have a number of uses, adding flavor and texture to many dishes. Nuts that have not been roasted or shelled will keep longer than those that have. Shelled nuts can be stored in the freezer or refrigerator, if space allows. In any case, they should be stored in a cool, dry, well- ventilated area and checked periodically to be sure they are still fresh. Almonds are teardrop-shaped nuts, part of a fruit that resembles an apricot. They have a pale tan, woody shell. Sweet almonds are sold whole, in the shell or shelled, blanched or unblanched, roasted, sliced, or slivered, and as almond paste and other products. Cashews are kidney-shaped nuts that grow as the appendage of an apple-like fruit (the fruit is not eaten). The shell of the cashew contains toxic oils, so cashews are always sold shelled, raw or toasted, whole or in pieces, or as a nut butter.  BPSTRY1 – BREAD AND PASTRY School of International Hospitality and Tourism Management Chestnuts have hard glossy brown shells covering the round or teardrop-shaped nuts. Chestnuts are sold whole, in the shell or shelled, canned, packed in syrup or water, candied, frozen, in vacuum-sealed packages, or as purée. Coconuts are the fruits of a type of palm tree. The “nut” is composed of a woody brown outer shell covered with hairy fibers surrounding a layer of rich white nutmeat. Coconuts are sold whole, and coconut meat is sold shredded or in flakes (sweetened or unsweetened), frozen, or dried (desiccated). Coconut milk, coconut cream, coconut oil, and other coconut-based products are also available. Hazelnuts (also called filberts) are small, nearly round nuts, rich and delicately flavored. Their shiny, hard shells have a matte spot where they were attached to the tree. Hazelnuts are sold whole, in the shell or shelled, or chopped. Macadamia nuts are extremely rich, sweet nuts native to Australia. They are pale in color and nearly round. Macadamia nuts are sold shelled and roasted in coconut oil. Peanuts are sold in the shell or shelled, raw (or natural), roasted, or dry-roasted, or as a butter. Pecans have two lobes and a rich flavor. The shell is medium brown, smooth, and glossy. They are sold in the shell or shelled as halves or pieces.