UGRC210 Combined Academic Writing 2 PDF

UGRC210 COMBINED ACADEMIC WRITING 2 Week 1 to Week 8  LECTURE 1 Overview of Grammar: Deviant Usage and Common Errors Adika (2011); Bailey (2015, pages 142-146) DEVIANT USAGE AND COMMON ERRORS The use of words and expressions that depart from accepted practice. When such...

UGRC210 COMBINED ACADEMIC WRITING 2 Week 1 to Week 8  LECTURE 1 Overview of Grammar: Deviant Usage and Common Errors Adika (2011); Bailey (2015, pages 142-146) DEVIANT USAGE AND COMMON ERRORS The use of words and expressions that depart from accepted practice. When such wrong usage become persistent the quality of your writing suffers. This lecture seeks to draw your attention to such errors with the view to helping you to avoid them. Outline  Misplaced modifiers  Dangling modifiers  Comma splices  Split infinities  Pronoun-antecedent agreement  Rambling sentences  Double subject  Sentence fragments  Parallel structures  Subject-verb agreement  Confusing words Misplaced modifiers  A misplaced modifier is a word, phrase or clause that is improperly separated from the word it modifies or describes.  Simply put, a word or a phrase apparently modifying an unintended word because of its placement in a sentence.  Sentences with this error often sound awkward and confusing. Example:  E.g.1) On her way home, Akosua found a gold man’s watch.  The sentence above would suggest that a gold man owns a watch.  Misplaced modifiers are usually corrected by moving the modifier to a more appropriate place in the sentence, generally next to the word it modifies. Example:  E.g. 2) On her way home, Akosua found a man’s gold watch.  The modifier ‘gold’ has now been placed next to the word it modifies, that is ‘watch’.  We can now say the modifier has been correctly placed. There are several kinds of misplaced modifiers.  Misplaced adjectives  Misplaced adverbs  Misplaced phrases  Misplaced clauses Misplaced adjectives  They are incorrectly separated from the nouns they modify and almost always distort the intended meaning.  E.g. 3) Kweku ate a cold dish of cereal for breakfast.  The word ‘cold’ is a misplaced adjective that modifies the noun ‘dish’. Correction  The error of a misplaced adjective is corrected by placing the adjective next to the noun it modifies.  E.g. 4) Kweku ate a bowl of cold cereal for breakfast.  The word ‘cold’ is now a correctly placed adjective that modifies ‘cereal’.  Sentences like these are common in everyday speech. Placement of adverbs  Wrongly placed adverbs in a sentence can change the meaning of the sentence.  E.g. 5) We ate the lunch that we bought slowly. (incorrect)  This sentence suggests that ‘we bought lunch slowly’. Placement of adverbs (correction)  To correct the meaning, move the adverb ‘slowly’ near or next to the verb ‘ate’.  E.g. 6) We slowly ate the lunch we bought. (correct)  Watch out for adverbs such as only, just, nearly, and almost. They are often misplaced and cause an unintended meaning. Misplaced phrases  This may cause a sentence to sound awkward and may create a meaning that does not make sense.  E.g. 7) Adwoa sold the food to ‘the customer with fresh meat’.  This sentence implies that the customer has a skin made of fresh meat or…  To clarify the meaning, put the phrase next to the noun they are supposed to modify. Misplaced phrases (correction)  E.g. 8) Adwoa sold the ‘food with fresh meat’ to the customer.  The dealer sold the Cadillac to ‘the buyer with leather seats’. (incorrect)  The dealer sold ‘the cadillac with leather seats’ to the buyer. (correct) Dangling modifiers  When a modifier occurs without the item that it modifies, it is referred to as a dangling modifier.  That is, the item to be modified is missing from the clause or sentence. Dangling modifiers  E.g. 9) When nine years old, my mother enrolled in medical school. ‘When nine years old’ is a dangling modifier.  Eg 10) Walking to the movies, the cloudburst drenched Jim. This sentence suggests that ‘the cloudburst is walking to the movies’ even though a possible walker Jim is mentioned. How to correct dangling modifiers.  Dangling modifiers can be corrected in two general ways. Correction method 1  Leave the modifier as it is.  Change the main part of the sentence so that it begins with the term actually modified.  This change will put the modifier next to the term it modifies. Dangling modifiers  E.g. 11) Walking to the movies, the cloudburst drenched Jim. (incorrect)  E.g. 12) Walking to the movies, Jim was drenched by the cloudburst. (correct) Dangling modifiers Correction method 2  Change the dangling modifier phrase to a subordinate clause, creating a subject and verb.  Leave the rest of the sentence as it is.  E.g. 13) When nine years old, my mother enrolled in medical school. (incorrect)  E.g. 14) When I was nine years old, my mother enrolled in medical school.(correct) Comma splices  Two sentences or independent clauses that are incorrectly joined by a comma.  E.g. 15) The internet has made the world smaller, you can meet people everywhere. Three options for comma splice revision  A) Use a comma and a coordinating conjunction (and, or, nor, so, yet etc.).  E.g. 16) The internet has made the world smaller, so you can meet people everywhere.  B) Use a semicolon.  E.g. 17) The internet has made the world smaller; you can meet people everywhere. Comma splices ( continuation)  C) Treat the clauses as separate sentences.  E.g. 18) The internet has made the world smaller. You can meet people everywhere. Split infinitives  A split infinitive is a grammatical construction in which a word or phrase divides the to and the bare infinitive verb.  The infinitive of a verb is the form given in the dictionary where no specific subject is indicated. In English, it is always characterized by the word ‘to’. E.g., to play, to bribe, to eat, to find, to laugh. Split infinitives (continuation)  A split infinitive occurs when the ‘to’ is separated from its verb by other words.  Usually, it is sufficient to move the offending word so it comes either before or after the infinitive.  E.g. 19) Kwame’s teacher told him to never look back. (incorrect)  E.g. 20) Kwame’s teacher told him never to look back. (correct) Split infinitives examples  E.g. 21) She told me I had to quickly finish the sandwich. (incorrect)  E.g. 22) she told me I had to finish the sandwich quickly. (correct)  E.g. 23) I was told to always pay attention in class. (incorrect)  E.g. 24) I was told always to pay attention in class. (correct) Clear pronoun reference  A pronoun is a word used to stand for or take the place of a noun.  A pronoun should refer clearly to one, unmistakable noun coming before the pronoun. This is called pronoun antecedent.  It is very easy to create a sentence that uses a pronoun without a clear, unmistakable noun antecedent. Clear pronoun reference (E.g.)  E.g. 25) After putting the disk in the cabinet, Kwame sold it.  The pronoun ‘it’ does not have a clear noun antecedent.  As a result, the reader cannot know for sure whether Kwame sold the disk or the cabinet.  Such errors, called faulty or vague pronoun reference can confuse readers and obscure intended meaning. Clear pronoun reference  There are three major pronoun reference errors: Too many antecedents Hidden antecedents No antecedent at all. Too many antecedents  A pronoun should have only one antecedent. The antecedent should be clear and unmistakable.  E.g. 25) Take the radio out of the car and fix it.  Anyone who reads this sentence would not know exactly which item to be fixed.  In the above example, faulty or vague pronoun reference occurs because the pronoun ‘it’ has two possible noun antecedents. Too many antecedents To fix the problem: A) Substitute a noun for the pronoun and B) Rephrase the sentence.  E.g. 26) Take the radio out of the car and fix the radio. Or  E.g. 27) Take the radio out of the car and fix the car. Hidden antecedents  Faulty pronoun reference errors also occur when the pronoun’s antecedent functions as an adjective rather than a noun.  In such cases, the true antecedent is hidden or obscured from the reader because it has been subordinated to another noun. Hidden antecedents (E.g.)  E.g. 28) The fufu dish was empty, but we were tired of eating it anyway.  We might think that the fufu dish was being eaten because ‘dish’ appears to be the antecedent for the pronoun ‘it’.  E.g. 29) The fufu dish was empty, but we were tired of eating fufu anyway. Pronoun antecedents  A pronoun can fall either before or after the noun it refers to. If the pronoun comes afterward, the noun it refers to is called the antecedent. The antecedent of any sentence must be clear for readers to easily comprehend. Errors relating to pronoun antecedents.  Ambiguous pronouns  Absent antecedents  Loose antecedents Ambiguous pronouns  One error is using a pronoun when the antecedent is unclear.  E.g. 30) Akosua discussed the new strategy with Jill. She decided to proceed as planned. Who decided to proceed as planned?  E.g. 31) After she discussed the new strategy with Jill, Akosua decided to proceed as planned. Absent antecedents  E.g. 32) Kojo says the course is fun to teach because it’s small, and they are motivated.  ‘they’ presumably refers to students, but the antecedent noun is absent.  E.g. 33) Kojo says the course is fun to teach, because it’s small and the students are motivated. (correct) Loose antecedents  A common pronoun reference error is having a pronoun such as ‘this’, ‘that’, ‘it’ or ‘which’, referring loosely to an idea expressed, rather than to a specific noun.  E.g. 34) The company concealed financial losses. This caused investors to damp the stock.  E.g. 35) The company concealed financial losses. That caused investors to dump the stock. Loose antecedents  E.g. 36) The company concealed financial losses. It caused investors to dump the stock.  In these sentences, note the lack of specific antecedent noun for ‘this’, ‘that’, and ‘it’  Corrected.  The company concealed financial losses.This accounting fraud caused investors to dump the stock.  The pronoun ‘this’ clearly refers to the noun ‘fraud’. Rambling sentences  Rambling sentences are sentences that contain several clauses connected by coordinating conjunctions such as ‘and’, ‘or’, ‘but’, ‘yet’, ‘nor’, and ‘so’.  A rambling sentence may appear to follow the technical rules of grammar but the sentence as a whole is wrong because it rambles or runs-on. Rambling sentences  E.g. 37) I wanted to eat fried rice but I realised that my money wasn’t enough so I thought about buying yam but then I realised that I didn’t feel like eating yam but I felt like eating rice so I walked back to my hostel for some money and I then realised that I had left my key in school so I was confused so I was very hungry and I didn’t know what to do. Rambling sentences  Rambling sentences as we saw above are exceedingly long and contain too many independent clauses.  The purpose of a sentence is to state a single idea or a small set of related ideas.  A rambling sentence states many ideas. Correction. Take out all the coordinating conjunctions that separate complete, distinct thoughts and then replace them with periods. Double subjects Sentences that contain double subjects  This error is mostly committed in our speech language.  E.g. 38) My hometown it is very big.  In this sentence, ‘it’ is a pronoun which represents ‘my hometown’  It is not correct to use both in the sentence.  E.g. 39) My hometown is very big. Double subjects (Other examples)  E.g. 40) My sister she is a nurse. (incorrect)  E.g. 41) My sister is a nurse. (correct)  E.g. 42) The mountains we visited them were beautiful. (incorrect)  E.g. 43) The mountains we visited were beautiful. (correct) Sentence fragments  Sentence fragment refers to a group of words that looks like a sentence, but is not. To qualify as a sentence, a group of words needs to have at least one independent clause.  An independent clause is any group of words that contains both a subject and a verb and can stand on its own.  Sentence fragments never have independent clauses, but have dependent clauses or phrases. Sentence fragment  They can look like real sentences because they begin with a capital letter and end with a period.  Fragments do not form a complete thought.  A sentence fragment is like having only half of the pieces to a puzzle. Without all the pieces, you will not have the whole picture. Sentence fragment Where they are found  They usually appear before or after the independent clauses to which they belong.  E.g. 44) When we got in the car. We rolled down the window.  ‘When we got in the car’ is a sentence fragment; it is dependent on the independent clause that follows it. Sentence fragment Correction:  E.g. 45) When we got in the car, we rolled down the window. (correct) Subject-verb agreement  One important rule to remember when forming sentences is to make subjects and verbs agree.  While this seems like an apparent or obvious rule, it is often overlooked.  We will discuss simple rules for remembering how subjects and verbs should agree. Subject-verb agreement 1) A singular subject always takes a singular verb. Use either the –s or –es ending of the present tense of a verb when the subject is in the third person.  E.g. 46) The cat plays with the toy.  E.g. 47) The girl wishes for a doll on her birthday. Subject-verb agreement 2) A plural subject always takes a plural verb.  E.g. 48) The dogs play in the yard. When using compound subjects, a plural verb is used with a compound subject.  E.g. 49) A dog and a cat are usually enemies. Subject-verb agreement An exception to the rule above is when the compound subject conveys a singular idea.  E.g. 50) The athletic trainer and graduate student is Bill Smith. When the compound subject contains ‘or’, ‘nor’, ‘neither...nor’, ‘not…but’, ‘not only…but also’, make the verb agree in number and in person with the nearer subject. Subject-verb agreement  E.g. 51) Neither the windows nor the door needs to be painted.  E.g. 52) Not the builder but the maids clean the house. 3) Verbs always agree with the subject in the sentence even if there is a phrase or clause between them.  E.g. 53) The trees as well as the shrubbery are losing their leaves. Subject-verb agreement  E.g. 54)The doctor in addition to his nurses has the night off.  E.g. 55) The farmer along with the cows rises early. 4) There are two rules to remember when referring to groups.  Use a singular verb when the subject is a collective noun which is referring to the group as a unit. Such collective nouns name a group or class: congregation, flock, jury, family. Subject-verb agreement  E.g. 56) The congregation is made up of Christians. An exception is made when using scissors or trousers which both take a plural verb except when used after ‘pair’  E.g. 57) The scissors are on the table.  E.g. 58) The pair of scissors is blunt. Subject-verb agreement 5) When using indefinite pronouns, use singular verbs. Such indefinite pronouns include: anybody, anyone, each, either, everybody, everyone, neither, somebody.  E.g. 59) Everyone in the room smells the disgusting odour.  E.g. 60) Neither was charged with the crime. Parallel structure/parallelism  The balance of two or more elements in a sentence  Elements in a sentence are parallel when one construction (or one part of speech) matches another: a phrase and a phrase, a clause and a clause, a verb and a verb, a noun and a noun and so forth. Parallel constructions Parallel structures or constructions occur with coordinating conjunctions. (and, or, nor, but, yet) Parallel constructions:  E.g. 61) At University of Ghana, cheating can result in suspension or even expulsion from school. Underlying Structure: At University of Ghana, cheating can result in (noun) or even (noun) from school. Parallel constructions with coordinating conjunctions Non parallel structures:  E.g. 62) At University of Ghana, cheating can result in suspension or even be expelled from school.  Underlying structure: At University of Ghana, cheating can result in (noun) or even (verb phrase) Parallel constructions with correlative conjunctions  Correlative conjunctions (e.g.: either/or, neither/nor, not only/but also, both/and, whether/or) Not parallel:  E.g. 63) Selasi is not only very beautiful but also is very intelligent.  The words very beautiful directly follow not only, so very intelligent should follow but also. Repeating the extra verb creates an unbalanced effect. Parallel constructions with correlative conjunctions Parallel construction:  E.g. 64) Selasi is not only very beautiful but also very intelligent. Parallel construction in a series Not parallel:  E.g. 65) The two girls enjoyed dancing, swimming and going to the mall.  Underlying structure: The two girls enjoyed (noun), (noun), and (verb phrase). Parallel construction in series Parallel:  E.g. 66) The two girls enjoyed dancing, swimming and shopping.  Underlying structure: The two girls enjoyed (noun), (noun) and (noun). Three-step method to parallelism  What part of speech is being used? Is it a noun, a verb or a phrase?  In what form or tense does the part of speech exist?  How can I convert the items in the sentence into the grammatical format? Confusing words Words that sound confusing  Examples A) Accept / Except  Accept is a verb meaning to receive.  Except is usually a preposition that denotes exclusion. B) Affect / Effect  Affect is a verb that means to influence  Effect is either a noun meaning result or it is a verb meaning to bring about. Confusing words (continuation)  Farther / further  Farther usually describes distance.  Further suggests a quantity or degree.  Fewer / less  Fewer refers to items that can be counted.  Less refers to items that cannot be counted. Confusing words (continuation) Who’s / whose  Who’s is a contraction of ‘who is’.  Whose is a possession pronoun. Your / you’re  Your is possessive  You’re is a contraction of ‘you are’. Loose / lose  Loose is an adjective meaning ‘not secure’.  Lose is a verb meaning the opposite of win. Lose also means ‘misplace’. REFERENCES  Adika, G. S. K. (2011). Deviant usage and confusing words. Accra: Black Mask.  Quirk, R. & Greenbaum, S. (1973). A university grammar of English. Longman.  http://www.canberra.edu.au/studyskills/lea rningoral  http://people.ucsc.edu/~pullum/goldenrule s.html  http://pne.people.si.umich.edu/PDF/howto talk.pdf  LECTURE 2 WRITING SKILLS I MAKING NOTES FROM A TEXT UGRC 210: ACADEMIC WRITING II College of Education LANGUAGE CENTRE, COLLEGE OF HUMANITIES School of Continuing and Distance Education UNIVERSITY OF GHANA 2018  As a starting point we need to draw a distinction between the more common term “note-taking” and the Note-taking term which is the focus of this session “note-making”. versus While note-taking involves capturing information quickly especially in a Note- lecture situation, note-making happens during reading when we making extract information from a text and try to make sense of it through reviewing, connecting and synthesizing the ideas. 2  Some of the situations or contexts in which you are very likely to take When do we notes are as follows: take notes? / Lectures Seminars Contexts of Conferences note-taking Fieldwork Reading Textbooks 3  In this session, we are Our focus focusing on note-making from written materials such as textbooks and research papers. 4 Why Note-making? 5 Benefits of Note-making 6  Characteristics of Good Notes Are organised into key ideas and supporting ideas Use bullet points Use visual techniques, e.g., highlighting, graphics/visual aids, and underlining to identify main points Use abbreviations and symbols to show connections between ideas Include examples 7  Making notes from a text Follow the steps below: 1. Preview 2. Read and mark important items 3. Write down the key items through summarising and paraphrasing 8  Making notes from a text: Preview First, preview the chapter or article you want to read or study by taking note of or reading the following: Chapter or Article title – it tells you what the piece is about First and last paragraph – for introduction and summary of the information Headings and subheadings – for outline of important concepts and the information covered First sentences or topic sentences of the paragraphs Also, read all boldface items. If there are pictures or diagrams or any other illustrations, include them in the preview. 9  Making notes from a text: Mark important items Second, mark important items or key information: Read the text carefully Mark/ underline/ highlight all important points (including the title, headings, subheadings, definitions, keywords, important examples). 10 Making notes from a text: Write down key issues Third, write down the key issues through: Summarising (condensing the information) Paraphrasing (re-writing the information in your own words as far as possible). 11 Build upon the ideas 12  Making notes – Important tips 13 Conclusion 14  LECTURE 3 WRITING SKILLS II: SUMMARY WRITNG 1 What is a summary? A shortened passage, which retains the essential information of the original A brief restatement in your own words of the contents of a passage A condensed version of an original text A short overview of the main points of an article or other source, written entirely in one’s own words A concise overview of a text’s main points in one’s own words To summarize is to condense a text to its main points and to do so in your own words. 2 Why summarizing? To explain a complex idea To provide an overview of an extended piece of writing To capture information from various sources to be used for an essay 3  Features of a good summary Brevity, accuracy and A summary should be objectivity are the a readable unified major ingredients of a whole. good summary. 4 Features of a good summary - Brevity Brevity Brevity, the quality of being short or brief, is the chief demand of summarizing. Usually, a good summary is about a third or a quarter of the original text. It should be brief without any unnecessary detail. The shortened length of a summarized text is the first visual quality. 5 Features of a good summary - Accuracy Accuracy Accuracy refers to the sameness of the message or idea(s) of the text in spite of its brevity. In other words, though the passage has been reduced in terms of its quantity, the intended message should be maintained. A summary should contain only the source's ideas, and nothing more; you simply report back what the writer has said. It should be understood without reference to the original. It should be a faithful reproduction of the original. 6 Features of a good summary - Objectivity Objectivity It should not make value judgments nor express your opinion. It should also not interpret the information in the original text. 7  Steps in writing a summary (1) 1 2 3 4 5 Preview the text Read the text Divide the text Understand the Write one- to find the general carefully to into sections and important parts. sentence theme. understand it well. label each section. summary for each section 8 Steps in writing a summary (2) Formulate a thesis statement from the general theme. Weave the one-sentence summaries together to write the first draft. Note: Write in your own words, to avoid plagiarism. Occasionally add important supporting details if necessary. Eliminate unnecessary words and repetitions. Eliminate personal ideas and inferences. Use transitions for a smooth and logical flow of ideas. Conclude your draft with a ‘summing up’ sentence. 9 Steps in writing a summary (3) Edit the draft by checking the following: If all the important information are included in the summary If you have eliminated repetition and unnecessary details If you have eliminated your personal views and ideas If your grammar, punctuation, and spelling are correct Write the final draft. 10  Important Tips Remember! Use quotation marks for directly quoted parts. Identify/ reference the original source. 11  LECTURE 4 WRITING SKILLS III: WRITING A PARAPHRASE Bailey 2015, pages 56-66 UGRC 210: ACADEMIC WRITING II College of Education LANGUAGE CENTRE, COLLEGE OF HUMANITIES School of Continuing and Distance Education UNIVERSITY OF GHANA 2018  Making use of information from other sources is encouraged in academic writing, especially if you know how to do it the right way. Using Information But reading for meaning or relevant information from academic and other from Other sophisticated texts can be a daunting Sources process especially if the material is new to the reader. The challenge of reading and effectively incorporating material from sources read in texts of your own (e.g. your draft research paper) can be made easier through the processes of quoting, summarizing and 2 paraphrasing.  You may choose to quote verbatim from a source text perhaps because the quoted passage or expression To Quote, captures some important idea, or you may simply summarize the Summarize, essential idea(s) of a text, or condensing a text into a briefer version that highlights the main Paraphrase ideas of the original. Or, you may choose to paraphrase the source text… 3  What, then, is paraphrasing? In basic terms, it refers to when we reword someone else’s words or ideas using about the same number of words but not the phrasing or the sentence structure of the original. In other words, paraphrasing involves writing Our focus another person’s ideas in your own words. A paraphrase is similar to a summary because it uses the words of the reader to make sense of the source text, but it also differs from because it is usually longer and pays attention to small details in the source text. 4  Why Paraphrase? A paraphrase substitutes your own words for the author’s words, and suggests that you have understood the source material. It also shows your grasp of the information in the source text and is evidence of your creative control over the same. Paraphrasing helps you to explain complex processes or ideas to others who may otherwise not understand them. 5  Benefits of Paraphrasing Generally, paraphrasing helps you to remember complex material or difficult ideas better. It helps you to explain those complex ideas to others as well. In academic writing, paraphrasing is often considered more important than quoting because it makes your work look more original. Paraphrasing involves paying attention to details and may even serve as a form of learning for the individual undertaking the exercise. 6  Steps to Follow When You Write a Paraphrase Read the text and make sure you understand it. Take note of the important ideas or complex concepts that need to be made clearer for the audience. Find words or expressions that are explanatory of the concepts, and make them easier to understand. Do not use technical words; explain them. 7  Steps to Follow When You Write a Paraphrase, cont’d Change the structure or vocabulary of your sentences so that they do not unduly imitate the original in a source text. Use your own words and sentence structure. Keep your sentences short and simple; they are more easily understood. In your paraphrase, indicate who is doing what, why, when, where, to express the meaning of the original completely and accurately. Indicate the source of your paraphrase to avoid plagiarism. 8  Examples of Acceptable and Unacceptable Paraphrase Example 1 Original Source Text: In 1938, in a series of now-classic experiments, exposure to synthetic dyes derived from coal and belonging to a class of chemicals called aromatic amines was shown to cause bladder cancer in dogs. These results helped explain why bladder cancers had become so prevalent among dyestuff workers. With the invention of mauve in 1854, synthetic dyes began replacing natural plant-based dyes in the coloring of cloth and leather. By the beginning of the twentieth century, bladder cancer rates among this group of workers had skyrocketed, and the dog experiments helped unravel this mystery. The International Labor Organization did not wait for the results of these animal tests, however, and in 1921 declared certain aromatic amines to be human carcinogens. Decades later, these dogs provided a lead in understanding why tire-industry workers, as well as machinists and metalworkers, also began falling victims to bladder cancer: aromatic amines had been added to rubbers and cutting oils to serve as accelerants and antirust agents. -----Sandra Steingraber, “Pesticides, Animals, and Humans” 9  Unacceptable Paraphrase: Wording too Close Paraphrase 1: Now-classic experiments in 1938 showed that when dogs were exposed to aromatic amines, chemicals used in synthetic dyes derived from coal, they developed bladder cancer. Similar cancers were prevalent among dyestuff workers, and these experiments helped to explain why. Mauve, a synthetic dye, was invented in 1854, after which cloth and leather manufacturers replaced most of the natural plant-based dyes with synthetic dyes. By the early twentieth century, this group of workers had skyrocketing rates of bladder cancer, a mystery the dog experiments helped to unravel. As early as 1921, though, before the test results proved the connection, the International Labor Organisation had labelled certain aromatic amines carcinogenic. Even so, decades later many metalworkers, machinists, and tire industry workers began developing bladder cancer. The animal tests helped researchers understand that rubbers and cutting oils contained aromatic amines as accelerants and antirust agents (Steingraber 976). **The paraphrase above borrows too much of the language of the original or changes it only slightly, as the underlined words and phrases show. It is therefore unacceptable or illegitimate. 10  Unacceptable Paraphrase: Sentence Structure Too Close Paraphrase 2: In 1938, several pathbreaking experiments showed that being exposed to synthetic dyes that are made from coal and belong to a type of chemicals called aromatic amines caused dogs to get bladder cancer. These results helped researchers identify why cancers of the bladder had become so common among textiles workers who worked with dyes. With development of mauve in 1854, synthetic dyes began to be used instead of dyes based on plants in the dyeing of leather and cloth. By the end of the nineteenth century, rates of bladder cancer among these workers had increased dramatically, and the experiments using dogs helped clear up this oddity. The International Labor Organization anticipated the results of these texts on animals, though, and in 1921 labeled some aromatic amines carcinogenic. Years later these experiments with dogs helped researchers explain why workers in the tire industry, as well as metalworkers and machinists, also started dying of bladder cancer: aromatic amines had been put in rubbers and cutting oils as rust inhibitors and accelerants (Steingraber 976). ** This paragraph uses some original language but follows the sentence structure of Steingraber’s text too closely. 11  Acceptable Paraphrase Paraphrase 3: Biologist Sandra Steingraber explains that pathbreaking experiments in 1938 demonstrated that dogs exposed to aromatic amines (chemicals used in coal-derived synthetic dyes) developed cancers of the bladder that were similar to cancers common among dyers in the textile industry. After mauve, the first synthetic dye, was invented in 1854, leather and cloth manufacturers replaced most natural dyes made from plants with synthetic dyes, and by the early 1900s textile workers had very high rates of bladder cancer. The experiments with dogs proved the connection, but years before, in 1921, the International Labor Organization had labeled some aromatic amines carcinogenic. Even so, years later many metal-workers, machinists, and workers in the tire industry started to develop unusually high rates of bladder cancer. The experiments with dogs helped researchers understand that cancers are caused by aromatic amines used in cutting oils to inhibit rust and in rubbers as accelerants (Steingraber 976). **The above is a more acceptable or legitimate paraphrase of the entire passage because it neither borrows too much of the language or the sentence structure of the original source passage. 12  EXAMPLE 2 The original passage is from Oliver Sacks' essay "An Anthropologist on Mars" The cause of autism has also been a matter of dispute. Its incidence is about one in a thousand, and it occurs throughout the world, its features remarkably consistent even in extremely different cultures. It is often not recognized in the first year of life, but tends to become obvious in the second or third year. Though Asperger regarded it as a biological defect of affective contact – innate, inborn, analogous to a physical or intellectual defect – Kanner tended to view it as a psychogenic disorder, a reflection of bad parenting, and most especially of a chillingly remote, often professional, "refrigerator mother." At this time, autism was often regarded as "defensive" in nature, or confused with childhood schizophrenia. A whole generation of parents – mothers, particularly – was made to feel guilty for the autism of their children. 13  ILLIGIMATE PARAPHRASE The cause of the condition autism has been disputed. It occurs in approximately one in a thousand children, and it exists in all parts of the world, its characteristics strikingly similar in vastly differing cultures. The condition is often not noticeable in the child's first year, yet it becomes more apparent as the child reaches the ages of two or three. Although Asperger saw the condition as a biological defect of the emotions that was inborn and therefore similar to a physical defect, Kanner saw it as psychological in origin, as reflecting poor parenting and particularly a frigidly distant mother. During this period, autism was often seen as a defense mechanism, or it was misdiagnosed as childhood schizophrenia. An entire generation of mothers and fathers (but especially mothers) was made to feel responsible for their offspring's autism (Sacks 247- 48). 14  REASONS WHY THE PARAPHRASE IS ILLEGITMATE Most of the sentences do little more than substitute one phrase for another. An additional problem with this paraphrase is that the only citation occurs at the very end of the last sentence in the paragraph. Thus, the reader might be misled into thinking that the earlier sentences were not also indebted to Sacks' essay. 15  LEGITIMATE PARAPHRASE In "An Anthropologist on Mars," Sacks lists some of the known facts about autism. We know, for example, that the condition occurs in roughly one out of every thousand children. We also know that the characteristics of autism do not vary from one culture to the next. And we know that the condition is difficult to diagnose until the child has entered its second or third year of life. As Sacks points out, often a child who goes on to develop autism will still appear perfectly normal at the age of one (247). Sacks observes, however, that researchers have had a hard time agreeing on the causes of autism. He sketches the diametrically opposed positions of Asperger and Kanner. On the one hand, Asperger saw the condition as representing a constitutional defect in the child's ability to make meaningful emotional contact with the external world. On the other hand, Kanner regarded autism as a consequence of harmful childrearing practices. For many years confusion about this condition reigned. One unfortunate consequence of this confusion, Sacks suggests, was the burden of guilt imposed on so many parents for their child's condition (247-248). 16  REASONS WHY THIS PARAPHRASE IS LEGITIMATE Notice that this passage makes it explicit right from the beginning that the ideas belong to Sacks, and the passage's indebtedness to him is signaled in more than one place. The single parenthetical note at the end of each paragraph is therefore all the citation that is needed. Further, the inclusion of explicit references to Sacks strengthens the passage by clarifying the source of its facts and ideas. Again, the paraphrase adds an analytical dimension to the passage: it does not just reiterate the points in Sacks' passage but lays out the structure of his argument. Note also that the paraphrase splits the original into two separate paragraphs to accentuate the two-part structure of Sacks' argument. Finally, notice that not all the details from the original passage are included in the paraphrase. [From: Jerry Plotnick. UC Writing Handouts: Paraphrase and Summary. (2008). http://www.utoronto.ca/ucwriting/paraphrase.html] 17  Further Examples Your source text may be relatively shorter as in the following examples: Source Text: Memory is the capacity for storing and retrieving information. Paraphrase: Memory is the facility for keeping and recovering data. Source Text: Research and publications are accumulating in each of the fields of anthropology Paraphrase: Studies and books are gathering in all the areas of anthropology. Company name  PARAPHRASING Company name PARAPHRASING 20  Conclusion The following are some of the key points you need to remember from this lesson: Writing a paraphrase is an important part of the writing process especially in academic contexts. The paraphrase involves writing another person’s ideas in your own words. You need to read the source text closely, as this helps when you attempt to say it in your own words. As much as is possible, do not repeat words/expressions/structures from the source text. Paraphrases involve borrowing, and you should properly cite the source material to avoid the possibility of plagiarism. 21  References and Further Reading Academic Writing: Reporting—paraphrase, summary and synthesis. (nd) retrieved June 29, 2010. From: http://www.uefap.com/writing/report/repfram.htm Bauer-Ramazani, (2001). Writing a Paraphrase. Retrieved June 29, 2010. From: http://www.academics.smcvt.edu/cbauer_ramazani/AEP/EN104/paraphrase.htm Bullock, Richard (2015). The Norton Field Guide to Writing. NY and London: W.W. Norton & Company. 267-271. Howard, R. M. & Jamieson, S. (1999). Resource for Writers. Retrieved June 29, 2010. From: http://www.users.drew.edu/sjamieso/synthesis.htm How to Write a Synthesis Paper. (2001). Retrieved June 29, 2010. From: http://www.academic.evergreen.edu/curricular/poliecon2001/synthesis.htm Paraphrase Practice. (nd). Retrieved June 29, 2010. From: http://www.middlesexcc.edu/faculty/Robert_Roth/ParaphraseEx.htm Plotnick, J. (2006). Paraphrase and Summary. Retrieved June 29, 2010. From: http://www.utoronto.ca/ucwriting/paraphrse.html Purdue OWL. (2010). Paraphrase: Write it in your own words. Retrieved June 29, 2010. From: http://www.owl.english.purdue.edu Sweeney, E. (nd). How to Write a Paraphrase. Retrieved June 29, 2010. From: http://www.ehow.com/how_2330723_write-paraphrase.html Company name  WEEK 3 5 LECTURE WRITING FROM MULTIPLE SOURCES: REFERENCES AND QUOTATIONS/ USING VERBS OF REFERENCE UGRC 210: ACADEMIC WRITING II College of Education LANGUAGE CENTRE, COLLEGE OF HUMANITIES School of Continuing and Distance Education UNIVERSITY OF GHANA 2018  Contents What are references and quotations? Why give references? Reference systems Writing the in-text citation Using quotations Using verbs of reference Writing the list of references 2  Introduction One aim of academic writing is to generate knowledge through research. Firstly, the writer finds out what knowledge already exists in the subject area by reading from textbooks and other sources and attending lectures, seminars, and other such academic functions. Then, the writer collects and records information on the topic from the sources before beginning to write. This process is called research. One important convention in conducting research involves referencing or acknowledging other researchers’ ideas. 3  What are references and quotations? References and quotations refer to the appropriate recording of the particulars and words of other writers whose works you have used in your work. Whether you read or heard the idea, you must record both the idea and the particulars of the individual or group whose idea it was, originally. Sometimes, you record word-for-word what the original writer has said or written; that is, a quotation or direct quotation. Other times, you summarize or paraphrase the original. 4  Why give references? Bailey (2015, p. 67) identifies three important reasons for giving references: To show that you have read some of the authorities on the subject, which will give added weight to your argument. To allow readers to locate your sources, if they wish to examine them in detail. To avoid plagiarism. References are given in two stages: 1. At the first stage, you give a citation at the point where you have used the writer’s idea. This is known as in-text citation. 2. At the second stage, you write a list of all sources that you have used in your essay at the end of the work. This is known as end- text reference. 5  Reference systems The reference systems (also referred to as reference style) are the established conventions for writing citations and lists of references in an academic text. There are several reference styles, such as the American Psychological Association (APA) style, Modern Language Association (MLA) style, Chicago style, Harvard style, etc. 6  Reference systems cont’d Institutions and departments typically use one particular reference style. Reference styles are often recorded in a document called the style sheet. The style sheet provides guidelines for both in-text citations and end-text lists. The next discussion focuses on in-text citations. 7  Writing in-text citation Any time you use another writer’s idea in your work, you must give an in-text citation, that is, you must cite the source where you used it. When you cite a direct quotation (i.e., using the exact words that the original writer has used), use quotation marks and state the surname of the writer/author, date of publication, and page number. On the other hand, when you cite a summary (i.e., capturing the key idea of the writer briefly in your own words), use the surname and publication date. Consider the following illustrations in Examples 1, 2, and 3: 8  The in-text citation: Example 1 Quotation Concerning a child’s ability to acquire language, Hoff asks: “Is the development of language in children the result of nature’s innate endowment (like the development of upright posture and bi-pedal locomotion), or is it the result of the circumstances in which children are nurtured (like the development of table manners or the ability to do calculus, both of which depend on particular experiences)” (2014, p. 16)? In the above citation (direct quotation), the surname is Hoff, the publication year is 2014, and the page number is 16. 9  The in-text citation: Example 2 Summary According to Hoff (2014), researchers wondered if a child’s ability to use a language was built into his/her body or came from training. In the above citation (summary), only the authors surname and year of publication are used. 10  The in-text citation: Example 3 Quotation and Summary It is possible to merge a summary and a quotation, as illustrated below: According to Hoff (2014), researchers wonder if a child’s ability to use a language was built into his/her body or came from training. She explains that “this is the nature-nurture debate, and it predates not only the modern study of language development but also the emergence of psychology as a discipline” (Hoff, 2014, p. 17). Note that the citations for both the summary and the quotation are appropriately written. (The style used in the illustrations in Examples 1, 2, and 3 is the APA style). 11  Using quotation Quotations use the exact words of the original writer. They are placed in quotation marks always. It is advised to use quotations sparingly. Use them when: the original words express the idea in a distinctive way the original is more concise than your summary could be the original version is well known (Bailey, 2015, p. 69) 12  Appropriate ways to use quotations There are different ways of presenting quotations. They include: Nested quotation Block quotation Ellipsis (…) Inserting your comments into a quotation Etc. 13  Nested quotation Nested quotations are quotations inside quotations. You may quote an author who has also quoted another author. Here is an example: Hoff (2014) contends that “the definition of language by Crystal (1995) as ‘the systematic and conventional use of sounds (or signs or written symbols) for the purpose of communication or self-expression’ is short and simple, and, although true, it is misleading in its simplicity” (p. 4). In the example, the writer quoted Hoff who also quoted Crystal. One set of quotation marks (“ …”) is used for the words of Hoff, and the other set (‘…’) is used for the words of Crystal whom Hoff has quoted. 14  Block quotation If the quotation is long (four typed lines or more), begin it with a preamble. End the preamble with a colon (:). Indent all the lines quoted at the left margin. The quotation may also be printed in smaller font size and line spacing. Here is an example: The Hoff (2014) affirms: The child who learns a language also comes to learn how to combine sentences into larger units of discourse—to tell a story or have a conversation. As they learn a language, children learn to use that language to communicate in socially appropriate ways. They acquire the means to share their thoughts and feelings with others and the skill to do so differently with their peers and their grandparents (p. 6). Note that quotation marks are not used in the block quotation. It is important to include the page number. 15  Ellipsis (…) Sometimes, it is necessary to take out some words in the sentence because you can make your point clearly without those words. In such a case use the ellipsis marker (three spaced dots) in place of the word or words deleted. Here is an example: Without ellipsis: “Cognitive scientists now agree that it is important to understand how the mind works in order to explain human behaviour, but they do not agree on how the mind works” (Hoff, 2014, p. 2). With ellipsis: “Cognitive scientists … do not agree on how the mind works” (Hoff, 2014, p. 2) If the ellipsis comes at the end of the sentence use four dots (ellipsis + final full stop). “Cognitive scientists now agree that it is important to understand how the mind works in order to explain human behaviour …” (Hoff, 2014, p. 2). Note: The sentence with the ellipsis must make complete sense. 16  Inserting your comments into a quotation Sometimes you may need to insert your own words into the original writer’s words to make the quotation more understandable to your readers. In such a case, place your words in square brackets [...]. Here is an example: “Modern ideas [of freedom] differ radically from those of the ancient world” (Nelson, 1981, p. 179). Putting ‘of freedom’ in the square bracket makes it clear that you are not referring to modern ideas of education or marriage or any other such issues. The next discussion focuses on verbs of reference. 17  Using verbs of reference One common way to introduce a citation is seen in this example: According to Hoff (2014) Crystal’s definition of language is misleading. It is not inappropriate to use the phrase ‘according to’. Nevertheless, there are several verbs that could introduce your citation more concisely. Note that verbs of reference are also called reporting verbs. 18 Using reference verbs to introduce a quotation Appropriate reference verbs are often used to introduce quotations. Here are two examples that use the verbs contends and asserted, respectively: Hoff (2014, p. 4) contends: “Language is complex and multifaceted.” Nkrumah asserted, “The independence of Ghana is meaningless unless it is linked to the total independence of the African continent” (March 6, 1957). 19 Using reference verbs to present a case Many reference verbs are used to indicate that the writer is presenting a case. They may also show the writer’s attitude. They include verbs like argue, claim, consider, hypothesize, suggest, believe, state. Here are examples: Bloom and Lahey (2012) believe that clear definitions of language content categories could help in assessing language and language-related behaviors. Carmichael (1946) concluded that current findings on language development differ significantly from theories of the pre-scientific era. 20 Using reference verbs to present a reaction Certain reference verbs, including accept, admit, agree, deny, doubt, refute, describe a reaction to a previously stated position. Here are examples: Hoff (2014) refutes the appropriateness of Crystal’s definition. Bloom and Lahey (2012) agree with Carmichael about the differences between the perception of language development in the past and present day ideas on the subject. 21  Using reference verbs – more examples Original writer’s attitude Verbs Asking a question asks, queries, questions, examines, probes, doubts Stating a fact states, says, points out, avers, maintains, declares, finds Repeating a point emphasizes, reiterates, stresses, highlights, underscores Giving an example illustrates, demonstrates, shows, clarifies, exemplifies Presenting an argument argues, suggests, posits, postulates, hypothesizes, theorizes, contends, claims, disputes, explores 22 Writing the list of references (end- text list) The list consists of all the sources you have used or cited from in your essay. In writing the list, you must always follow the guidelines of the style used. Here are some common guidelines: Begin writing the list on a fresh page after the essay. Title the list appropriately, depending on the style used (some styles use the title ‘References’). Arrange the list in alphabetical order using the surname of the author. If there are two or more authors, maintain the same order of name. For anonymous publications, use the name of the institution or agency that published the article or book. Use hanging indent (Begin the first line from the margin, but indent all subsequent lines.) 23  Writing the list of references At the end of your essay, your end-text list will appear as illustrated below: References Bloom, L. & Lahey, M. (1978). Language development and language disorders. New Jersey: John Wiley and Sons, Inc. De Bot, K. (2008). Introduction: Second language development as a dynamic process. The Modern Language Journal, 92(2) 166 – 178, https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1540-4781.2008.00712.x Flege, J. (1999). Age of learning and second language speech. In Birdsong, D. (Ed.). Second Language Acquisition and the Critical Period Hypothesis. London: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, 101 – 132. Hoff, E. (2014). Language development (5th Edition). Belmont, CA: Wadsworth Cengage Learning. Nelson, K. (1981). Individual differences in language development: Implications for development and language. Developmental Psychology, 17 (2), 170–187. Robertson, S. (2019). Language development in children. Retrieved March 20, 2021 from https://www.news - medical.net/health/Language-Development-in-Children.aspx University of Ghana. (2017). Regulations for junior members. Retrieved March 20, 2021 from https://www.ug.edu.gh/sites/default/files/aad/University_Regulations_for_Junior_Members-2017R- compressed.pdf 24 Summary 25  References Bailey, S. (2015). Academic writing: A handbook for international students. London: Routledge. Ebest, S. B., Alred, G. J., Brusaw, C. T., & Oliu, W. E. (2003). Writing from A to Z. (Fourth Ed). Boston: McGraw Hill. Kelly, W.J. & Lawton, D.L. (2006). Odyssey: From paragraph to essay. (4th Ed.). New York: Pearson. Langan, J. (2008). College writing skills with readings. (Seventh Edition). New York: McGraw Hill Nukui, C. & Peace, M. (2015). Referencing and avoiding plagiarism. Reading: University of Reading. Oshima, A. & Hogue, A. (2007). Introduction to academic writing. White Springs, NY: Pearson Education Inc. Ward, J., Wilding, E., Manning, A. & O’Cain, A. (2015). Research and online sources. Reading: University of Reading. 26  LECTURE 6 WRITING FROM MULTIPLE SOURCES: COMBINING SOURCES/ PROVIDING COHESION UGRC 210: ACADEMIC WRITING II College of Education LANGUAGE CENTRE, COLLEGE OF HUMANITIES School of Continuing and Distance Education UNIVERSITY OF GHANA 2018  CONTENTS Combining sources Why combine sources? Combining sources in the introduction Combining sources in the body of the essay Sample texts, summaries and synthesis Providing cohesion 2  Combining Sources For most assignments, students are expected to read a range of sources, often containing conflicting views on a topic. In some cases, the contrast between the various views may be the focus of the task. In writing an essay, it is common to refer to the views of other writers on the subject to show that you are familiar with their work, and that your work will take their research into account. It is important to take a critical approach by comparing a range of views to demonstrate that you are cognizant with different and conflicting views on a topic. This is because most subjects worth studying are the subject of debate. Ultimately, your essay should analyse, compare and evaluate information from the sources to support your position and clarify your thoughts; such an essay could be described as a synthesis essay, i.e., combining various ideas/ information into a new unified whole. 3  Why combine sources? When we use sources (other writers’ ideas) in our work, we show a number of relationships, including: how one writer’s approach differs from another writer’s how one writer’s findings are similar to or different from another writer’s how one writer’s method differs from another writer’s whether we agree or disagree with what one writer says, and why We combine sources to highlight these relationships. 4  Why combine sources? Cont’d. Furthermore, we combine sources to: Broaden the scope of the essay Enrich the content Ensure objectivity Signal our sophistication as writers 5  Combining sources in an introduction We often cite sources in our introductory paragraphs. When we use other writers’ ideas in our introduction, we often wish to show the areas of the subject that these other writers have investigated. In this case, we only mention the author’s work to state what aspect of the subject the writer has worked on because it relates to our own topic. See Bailey (2015, p. 77-78) for example text (introduction) that combines sources; answer the list of questions that follow the example. 6  Combining sources in the body of the essay When we combine sources in our essay, we state a writer’s idea and show: how one writer’s idea contrasts or compares with the idea of another writer how a writer’s idea compares or contrasts with our own idea. 7  Combining sources in the body of the essay: the process These are steps to follow to combine two or more ideas in the body of the essay: Paraphrase or Summarize the writer’s ideas (restate them briefly in your own words). State the point you wish to make (as your topic sentence). Show how the two (or more) researchers disagree (or agree) on the point. Clearly indicate the source of each information to avoid plagiarism. The following are samples of combining information from 3 sources; the pieces of information are summarized and synthesized (combined): 8  Example 1: Text 1 “Scientists are studying whether people who get vaccinated for COVID-19 would also be less likely to pass the COVID-19 virus on to other people. If that’s the case, getting vaccinated could be a powerful way to not only protect yourself, but also your entire community. At the moment, vaccines available for COVID-19 have efficacy of between 60-94%, and are effective in preventing symptomatic disease.” [ SOURCE [UNICEF (nd) Information on the COVID-19 vaccine. Retrieved March 22, 2021 from https://www.unicef.org/ghana/information-covid-19-vaccine] SUMMARY According to the United Nations Children’s Educational Fund (UNICEF), scientists are not sure that the vaccines in use now can prevent the disease. 9  Example 1: Text 2 “Safe and effective vaccines will be a game-changer: but for the foreseeable future we must continue wearing masks, physically distancing and avoiding crowds. Being vaccinated does not mean that we can throw caution to the wind and put ourselves and others at risk, particularly because it is still not clear the degree to which the vaccines can protect not only against disease but also against infection and transmission.” [SOURCE: [WHO (2021). COVID-19 Vaccines. Retrieved March 22, 2021, from https://www.who.int/emergencies/diseases/novel-coronavirus-2019/covid-19-vaccines] SUMMARY The World Health Organization (WHO) has stated that the effectiveness of the vaccines for the COVID-19 is still being studied (2021). 10  Example 1: Text 3 “Vaccine hesitancy usually refers to delays of acceptance or refusal by a person, usually parents, of vaccination. The anti-vaccine movement usually refers to an active campaign by various groups that reject the use or even the idea of vaccines. People’s distrust of vaccines emerges due to pharmaceutical companies’ longstanding negative reputation. That’s due to various examples of misconduct in the past. Among these are bribing health officials and a lack of transparency in clinical trials.” SOURCE: [Sukumawani Bela Pertiwi (Feb. 19, 2021) Why do people still reject COVID-19 vaccines in Indonesia? Retrieved March 22, 2021 from https://theconversation.com/why-do-people-still-reject-covid-19-vaccines-in-indonesia-we-need-to-solve- structural-problems-behind-the-anti-vaccine-movement-154568] SUMMARY Indonesians do not want to be vaccinated because they are suspicious about the intention of the companies that produce the vaccines (Pertiwi, 2021). 11  Example 1: Synthesis (combined sources) One concern of people about the COVID-19 vaccine is its ability to prevent the disease. UNICEF (nd) affirms that the vaccines currently in use are not guaranteed to prevent the disease. This position is shared by the WHO (2021), which states that the effectiveness of the vaccines to prevent the disease is still being studied. Moreover, some people are suspicious of the intentions of the producers of the vaccines, and are, thus, unwilling to be vaccinated (Pertiwi, 2021). Note the following in the synthesis: The paragraph begins with a topic sentence. The synthesis provides adequate in-text citations to identify the respective sources of the various pieces of information, thus preventing plagiarism. 12  Example 2 If you are discussing how you agree (or disagree) with another writer: Summarize the other writer’s idea State your point (as your topic sentence) Show how the other writer’s idea contrasts (or compares) with yours. In that case, this is how the synthesis will look like: One concern of Ghanaian health authorities is the unwillingness of a large number of Ghanaians to take the vaccine. Pertiwi (2021) identifies suspicion of the producers of the vaccine as a reason for rejecting the vaccine. Similarly, the data shows that Ghanaians who are rejecting the vaccine are suspicious. However, while Indonesians are suspicious of the pharmaceutical companies, Ghanaians are suspicious of the government. 13  Example 3: End-text list Our list of references will look like this: References Pertiwi, S.B. (Feb. 19, 2021) Why do people still reject COVID-19 vaccines in Indonesia? Retrieved March 22, 2021 from https://theconversation.com/why- do-people-still-reject-covid-19- vaccines-in-indonesia-we-need-to-solve- structural- problems-behind-the-anti- vaccine-movement-154568. UNICEF (nd) Information on the COVID-19 vaccine. Retrieved March 22, 2021 from https://www.unicef.org/ghana/information-covid-9-vaccine. WHO (2021). COVID-19 Vaccines. Retrieved March 22, 2021. https://www.who.int/emergencies/diseases/novel-coronavirus-2019/covid-19- vaccines. 14  Providing Cohesion Providing cohesion in writing is the process of ‘tying up’ the sentences together so that the text becomes coherent). Cohesion means joining a text together with reference words and other devices so that the whole text is clear and readable. Providing cohesion ensures connection of ideas in writing. It also enhances clarity and understanding of texts. 15  Cohesion tools They include the following: Reference words Conjunctions Transition words/phrases Synonyms Repetition Etc. 16  Cohesion tools: reference words Reference words include pronouns and other anaphoric expressions like he, she, it, they, him, her, them, his, their, this, that, those, the former, the latter. They are used to replace keywords and other nouns to avoid repetition in writing. If the use of a reference word creates confusion due to ambiguity, avoid using it. For illustration of the use of reference words to avoid repetition, and also for avoidance of ambiguity from their use, see Bailey (2015, p. 82-83). 17  Cohesion tools: Conjunctions Conjunctions are words and phrases used to indicate contrast, addition, reason, and other logical relations among ideas in a text. They include the following: but, yet (contrast) and (addition) so (reason) Their use in writing helps to enhance cohesion in texts. They also function like transition words. 18  Cohesion tools: Transition words/Phrases Addition: What can be added? (e.g., not only Consequence: What is the effect or result? (e.g., …but also, besides, moreover, thus, accordingly, for this reason, therefore, as a further/furthermore, not only (this) but also result (of this), consequently, hence, for this (that), also, in addition (to this), additionally,) reason, because (of this), so that, as a Concession: Is there another viewpoint? (e.g., consequence) admittedly, certainly, obviously, nevertheless, Contrast: What are the points of difference? (e.g., even though, nonetheless, despite (this), conversely, in contrast, however, whereas, on the notwithstanding (this), albeit, other hand) although, in spite of (this), regardless (of this), Likeness: What are the points of similarity? (e.g., granted (this), be that as it may) likewise, in similar fashion, similarly, in the same Conclusion: What is the summary or way, by the same token, correspondingly, in a conclusion? (e.g., finally, in summary, to like manner, equally) conclude, on the whole, overall, to sum up, Restatement: How can the point be put another lastly) way? (e.g., more simply, namely, in other words, Sequence: In what order do the points occur? put differently ) (e.g., first, second, additionally, furthermore)  Cohesion tools: synonyms Synonyms are words and phrases that have the same or similar meaning. Synonyms of keywords can be used in subsequent sentences in a text to enhance cohesion. 20  Cohesion tools: repetition This method works well especially with technical terms. Repeating such expressions in a text is one of the ways to enhance cohesion. 21  Summary We combine sources (synthesize) in the introduction and in the body of our essay. In the introduction, we only mention the areas of the subject the other researchers worked on that are related to our current study. In the body of the essay, we show how two or more writers’ ideas on a point differ or match. We also show how the other researchers’ ideas differ from or are similar to our own ideas. In all cases, we must cite the sources appropriately. We should also provide cohesion to allow the synthesis essay read clearly. 22  References Bailey, S. (2015). Academic writing: A handbook for international students. London: Routledge. Ebest, S. B., Alred, G. J., Brusaw, C. T., & Oliu, W. E. (2003). Writing from A to Z. (Fourth Ed). Boston: McGraw Hill. Kelly, W.J. & Lawton, D.L. (2006). Odyssey: From paragraph to essay. (4th Ed.). New York: Pearson. Langan, J. (2008). College writing skills with readings. (Seventh Edition). New York: McGraw Hill Nukui, C. & Peace, M. (2015). Referencing and avoiding plagiarism. Reading: University of Reading. Oshima, A. & Hogue, A. (2007). Introduction to academic writing. White Springs, NY: Pearson Education Inc. Ward, J., Wilding, E., Manning, A. & O’Cain, A. (2015). Research and online sources. Reading: University of Reading. 23  LECTURE WEEK 3 7 WRITING WITH VISUAL INFORMATION UGRC 210: ACADEMIC WRITING II College of Education LANGUAGE CENTRE, COLLEGE OF HUMANITIES School of Continuing and Distance Education UNIVERSITY OF GHANA 2018  Contents What is visual information? Why visual information? Benefits of visual information Types of visual information Techniques in using information Caution 2  What is visual information? Information perceived by the eye A form of information that is created to be seen visually Information in the form of visual representations 3  Why visual information? The need for the following may necessitate the use of visual information in an academic essay: An effective way to present information To support statements or claims with graphic information To present data in a logical and coherent format To make data more presentable, easy-to-read, and easy-to-understand 4  Benefits of visual information A convenient way of displaying large quantities of information in a form that is easy to understand. A single visual information, such as a table, can be used to capture what would have otherwise been written in several paragraphs. It is easier to recall visual information than recalling several paragraphs. It enhances the impact of your academic paper. Various tools and software for creating visual information are available (e.g. graphic organizers). 5  Uses Visual information can be used for the following: To depict outcomes, relationships, and trends To provide visual evidence/support for ideas When data is highly complex Statistical information are usually presented in graphic form. 6  Types of visual information Tables Graphs Diagrams Photographs Maps Etc. See Bailey (2015, p. 160) for illustration. 7  Techniques Choose the right visual image. Put it in the right place in the essay. Format it properly. Label it with a number and a clear and appropriate title. Mention the image in the text of your paper and discuss its significance. If the image appears on a different page than the discussion, mention the page number. Cite the source if the image/data/idea is not your own. 8  Techniques When referring to visual information in the text, the word ‘figure’ is used for everything (such as maps, charts and graphs) except tables. Titles of tables are written above, while titles of figures are written below the data. 9  Caution If you try to get graphs and charts to do too much, you can easily end up with a mess. Just keep it simple. You should design them in a proper way. A poorly designed table or figure will only serve to confuse and even mislead your reader. If you are writing a lengthy work, such as a dissertation, you will need to provide lists of tables and figures, showing numbers, titles and page numbers, after the contents page 10  REFERENCES Bailey, S. 2015. The essentials of academic writing for international students. London & New York: Routledge. 11  WEEK 4 3 LECTURE 7 ACADEMIC PRESENTATION SKILLS UGRC 210: ACADEMIC WRITING II College of Education LANGUAGE CENTRE, COLLEGE OF HUMANITIES School of Continuing and Distance Education UNIVERSITY OF GHANA 2018  INTRODUCTION Making presentations is an integral part of your life in the academic discourse community and in your career after school. An academic presentation gives you, the researcher, an opportunity to share your research ideas or findings. There are skills that you need to acquire in order to become a good presenter. 13  KNOW YOUR MATERIAL A good knowledge of the subject material is important. In addition to the research findings or ideas you have prepared to share, you will have to read adequately on the subject matter. This will help you to be clear in your presentation. It will also help you to handle questions that the audience will ask intelligently. 14 BE SELECTIVE IN WHAT TO PRESENT Do not present redundant information; the audience would want to hear something new. Do not forget that the essence of research is its contribution to knowledge. However, do not also take some ideas or information for granted. You will therefore have to make a good assessment of your audience. You also need to select your material carefully with respect to the amount of time you have for delivery. 15  ORGANISE THE MATERIAL Like the academic essay, the academic presentation also has the following sections: The Introduction The Body The Conclusion/Summary 16  THE INTRODUCTION In the introduction: Spell out what you intend to do/ topic and aim of your presentation. Provide a brief background. Give an outline of your presentation or Tell your audience about the order of your presentation. 17  THE BODY The body constitutes the core of your presentation. Divide your contents into main points. Limit the number of main points. Organize you points such that it is easy for the audience to follow. Provide data to support your argument. 18  CONCLUSION/SUMMARY The conclusion or summary entails the following: What new ideas arise out of your study? What more data do you need to confirm your initial observations? What contribution does your study make to our understanding of the subject? Any possible future directions? 19  DELIVERY METHODS Avoid reading a fully written out text. Use PowerPoint or Handout/Notes. Use the slides/notes/handout as speaking aids. 20  DELIVERY METHODS CONT’D You may use any of the following audio-visuals: White board Flipchart Pictures Sound files Handouts PowerPoint 21  AUDIENCE CONNECTION Maintain eye contact with audience. Do not speak in a monotone. Your voice must be clear, but do not shout. Avoid pacing around the room to minimize distraction. Minimize the use of speech fillers e.g., hmm; I mean; you see; you know; eeh, etc. 22  YOUR BODY Be careful with your gestures; remember that communication could be verbal/non- verbal. Have an idea about the culture of the place e.g. use of left hand in Ghana. Be mindful of your posture. Avoid mannerisms like rubbing of eyes, yawning, nose- picking etc. Dress decently, but do not overdress to cause distractions. 23  THE QUESTION TIME Questions should be expected at the end of your presentation. Anticipate some of the questions as you prepare material for presentation. Do not panic. Listen attentively. Do not interrupt the questioner. Be courteous. Be sincere. 24  THE QUESTION TIME CONT’D Ask for clarification if question is unclear. Answer directly. Admit it if you don‘t know the answer but promise to find out later. 25  MANAGING ANXIETY Use every opportunity to make presentations. Presentation at international or national conferences must start from your class or department. Know your subject thoroughly to boost your confidence. Prepare sufficiently. Rehearse your presentation. Engage in relaxation exercises. 26  USING POWERPOINT Present one idea per slide. Don‘t overcrowd your slides. Each slide should have not more than EIGHT lines. So don‘t copy and paste passages from WORD to PPT. Be conservative in the use of animation. 27  TECHNOLOGY CHALLENGES If you plan to use PPT, be sure a projector will be available. Have a Plan B in case technology fails you. Have print-out copies of your PPT slides ready. In a conference setting, be sure to load your files before it is your turn to present. If you are using your own laptop, pre-test with the projector. 28  TECHNOLOGY CHALLENGES CO Make a hardcopy handout. Put extra data in your handout (rather than in the PPT). Provide list of abbreviations if any. Supply list of cited works/ Bibliography/References. 29  HELPFUL EXPRESSIONS WHEN MAKING PRESENTATIONS Starting the presentation: Good morning/ good afternoon ladies and gentlemen The topic of my presentation is … What I am going to talk about today is … 30  HELPFUL EXPRESSIONS WHEN MAKING PRESENTATIONS CONT’D Why you are giving this presentation: The purpose of this presentation is … This is important because … My objective is to … 31  HELPFUL EXPRESSIONS WHEN MAKING PRESENTATIONS CONT’D Stating the main points/ order of presentation: The main points I will be talking about are firstly… secondly… next …, finally… we are going to look at… 32  HELPFUL EXPRESSIONS WHEN MAKING PRESENTATIONS CONT’D Introducing the first point: Let‘s start/begin with … Showing graphics, slides etc: I would like to illustrate this by showing you … Moving on to the next point: Now let‘s move on to … 33  HELPFUL EXPRESSIONS WHEN MAKING PRESENTATIONS CONT’D Giving more details: I would like to expand on this aspect/problem/point... Let me elaborate on that … Let me explain further … 34  HELPFUL EXPRESSIONS WHEN MAKING PRESENTATIONS CONT’D Changing to a different topic: I would like to turn to something completely different … Referring to something which is off the topic (not advisable, minimize this): I would like to digress here for a moment and just mention that … Referring to an earlier point: Let me go back to what I said earlier about … 35  HELPFUL EXPRESSIONS WHEN MAKING PRESENTATIONS CONT’D Summarizing or repeating the main points: I would like to recap the main points of my presentation First I covered … Then we talked about … Finally we looked at … I would like to sum up the main points which were …. 36  HELPFUL EXPRESSIONS WHEN MAKING PRESENTATIONS CONT’D Conclusion: I am going to conclude by saying that/inviting you/ quoting … In conclusion, let me leave you with this thought/invite you to… 37  HELPFUL EXPRESSIONS WHEN MAKING PRESENTATIONS CONT’D Questions: Finally, I will be happy to answer your questions. Now I would like to invite any questions you may have. Do you have any questions? 38  REFERENCES Reinhart, S. (2002). Giving academic presentations. Michigan: University of Michigan Press http://www.learn-english-today.com/business- english/presentations-phrases.htm  LECTURE 8 WRITING MODELS: REPORTS, ESSAYS AND SCIENTIFIC REPORTS 1  Contents Introduction Why do we write reports? Writing of a report Surveys Scientific reports Long essays How are reports different from/similar to essays? 2  Introduction There are different writing models in academic discourse. Essays are the most common assignments in many academic disciplines. Nevertheless, report writing is required in some disciplines. Students of Economics and Business, for instance, are often asked to write reports. Reports and essays are similar in many ways BUT they also differ in other ways. 3  Why do we write reports? Generally, reports describe situations or things that have occurred. In academic terms, reports tend to describe: An experiment one has conducted A survey one has carried out A comparison of alternative proposals to deal with a situation 4  Writing of a report The writing of a report consists of the following: Plan it out. Effect the plan. Present you report. These 3 activities are explained in turn. 5  Writing of a report cont’d Planning it out The following must be clarified: – What is the report about (the focus)? – Why are you writing the report (the reason)? – How are you going about it (the method); does it involve research/ survey/ experiment/ observation? 6  Writing of a report cont’d Effecting the plan Use the appropriate methods and tools to: – Collect data. – Process the data. – Analyse the data. – Interpret the data. 7  Writing of a report cont’d Presenting your report In writing out the report: – Use the appropriate structure. – Present your findings. – Indicate any shortcomings. – Make recommendations. – Include visual information where necessary. – Include references where applicable. 8  Components of a report The components of a report include: Introduction Methods Results Discussion Conclusion 9  Components of a report Cont’d Introduction Background to the subject Reasons for carrying out the work Review of other research in the area Methods How you did your research Description of the tools/materials used. 10  Components of a report Cont’d Results What you discovered Provide comments on likely accuracy of results Discussion Interpret the results and make claims Indicate significance of your main findings Comment on the effectiveness of your research 11  Components of a report Cont’d Conclusion Summary of your work Suggestions for further research 12  Surveys Surveys in which people are asked questions about their behavior or opinions are a common feature of academic work. An effective questionnaire must be designed for surveys A suitable structure must be presented for reporting the results. 13  Conducting Surveys Questionnaires are designed to collect data from large numbers of people fairly quickly. Other research methods use interviews for more detailed responses. 14  Conducting Surveys Cont’d Questionnaire design Writing an effective series of questions is a vital part of conducting a survey. What are the reasons for carrying out the survey? You must think carefully about what your aims are, and how to achieve them in the simplest way. There is no value in collecting a mass of information that is irrelevant to your topic 15  Conducting Surveys Cont’d When designing your questionnaire: Limit the number of questions so the respondent can answer them in a minute or two. Long and complicated questionnaires will not receive accurate replies. Keep questions clear and simple, and not too personal. Closed questions are easier to process, but open questions will collect a wider range of responses. You should try putting the questions to a classmate before beginning the full survey, and be ready to modify any that were not clear. Do not collect unnecessary information. 16  Scientific reports Scientific reports are conducted to support hypotheses or to validate other works. They are accurate written records that: – Allow other researchers to share their work – Add to an international body of data 17  Format of a scientific report Format of a scientific report include: Title Abstract Introduction Method Results Discussion References 18  Long Essays Long essays of 2,500 – 5,000 words may be required as part of your course work. These require more research and organization than short essays. Long essays are normally set many weeks before their deadline. Students thus have plenty of time to organize their writing  Long Essays Cont’d You should also check the submission requirements of your department. These may include: – Style of referencing – Method of submission (i.e., electronic, hard copy, or both) – Place and time of submission. Being clear about these will avoid last-minute panic.  Long Essay Cont’d Steps for organising long essays include: – Preparing a work schedule to avoid last-minute panic – Starting the writing process early to have enough time to refine your ideas – Consider the features of long essays necessary for your work Consider the components of long essays necessary for your work (see next slide). 21  Components of a long essay Components of a long essay include: Title page Contents page List of tables or figures Introduction Main body Conclusion List of references Appendices 22 How do reports differ from essays? Reports basically present facts whereas essays usually involve reasoning and arguments. Reports typically use primary as well as secondary data Reports normally use numbering and subheading for different sections Reports tend to be more specific and detailed 23 How are reports similar to essays? They both have a clear and logical format. They both use objective and accurate academic style. They both include citations and references. They both make use of visual information. They both include appendices where necessary. 24  References Bailey, S. (2015). The essentials of academic writing for international students. London & New York: Routledge. Spatt, B. (1991). Writing from sources. (3rd Ed.) New York: St. Martin’s Press. 25