Blood Cells 2024 PDF

Blood Cells Dr. Silvia Boyajian Blood Cells Dr. Silvia Boyajian  Blood:Specialized type ofCT. 55....

Blood Cells Dr. Silvia Boyajian Blood Cells Dr. Silvia Boyajian  Blood:Specialized type ofCT. 55. living els non living 45% vascular System ⑮ and CO2 Carry or plasma that immunity - wetold WBCs8 E 90% water * tomipexotic dete plug the 10%8 2. Clotting relectrolytes Nutrients ~ ⑦umin.58in a ~proteins transporter protein - coat - a ② Glubulin immune response we 4 ↳ platelets COL & ③ Fibrinogen: clotting Iwastes urec ammonia -gases ~hormones  Blood - S living 458. 1.55 Non living plasma cells 90: water erythroat - RB - 107:- (leukocyte) I - wBCs +side electrolyte ① or Immune system ② hormones Balk 58% thedefect albumin: plateletspluggingas a colloid pressure a proteins: AA. such as substances - a re osmotic 5x1 Bind - insoluble - immune sys. ② Globulin??" in ABs -See Monkey at Banana Constitute active metabolite Neutrophils 4 polymerizes to * ③ fibrinogen: Cfibrin)/clotting a leukocytes > Soluble protein seat platelet WBCs- Monocytes cosophils of BBCto Hematocrity: ↳ Basophils the percentage of volume the volume of Blood mL Blood 40%:40 ML RBC in 100 Blood It is specialised type of connective tissue Composition: Variety of cells suspended in a fluid medium called plasma Functions of blood O2, CO2 Transports nutrients and respiratory gases Transports waste products to organs and tissues where they can be recycled or So, ammonia, are a released Transports hormones WBCs Transports immune cells throughout the body Helps regulate body temperature Maintains of acid-base and osmotic balance Characteristics pH of 7.4 Colour is dependent on amount of oxygen More oxygen= brighter the red Less oxygen= duller the red one direction 5-6 litres of blood in an average adult movesyunidirectionallyCwithin the closed circulatory system Physical Characteristics Fluid –Living 45%  Cells (formed elements) –RBC Erythrocytes(carry oxygen) –WBC Leukocytes (immune) Buffy coat –Platelets Thrombocytes(clotting) –Non living (Matrix) 55%  Plasma (pale yellow fluid) –90% water –10 % (electrolytes, nutrients, proteins (albumin), waste (CO2, ammonia, urea), gases, hormones) HEMATOCRIT: Ratio of the volume of RBCs to the volume of whole blood Example: a hematocrit value of 40% means that there are 40 ml of RBCs in 100 ml of whole blood Normal hematocrit: Males=40-53% Females= 36-48%  * ~ e w ~ w w ~ ⑧ v > > - - 8never letMonkey I ↓ 2-81. Eat 1 41 - Baran 20-40% 30-70% Plasma Essentially aqueous solution of inorganic salts which is constantly exchanged with extracellular fluid of body tissue coivi.5smotic pressure ↑ Plasma also contains  Plasma Proteins of 3 main types A- Albumin B- Globulin C- Fibrinogen Plasma proteins collectively exert a colloid osmotic pressure within the circulatory system which helps regulate the exchange of aqueous solutions between plasma and ECF Albumins: constitute the bulk of plasma proteins Bind insoluble metabolites such as fatty acids and serve as transport proteins Globulins: includes the antibodies of immune system transport protein Fibrinogen: soluble protein which polymerises to form the insoluble protein fibrin during blood clotting Blood cell types Three major classes: 1- Red Blood Cells (RBCs) (erythrocytes) 2- White Blood Cells (WBCs) (leukocytes) All are formed in the bone marrow 3- Platelets (Thrombocytes) a process known as Haemopoiesis or Hematopoiesis circulatory system sigi, g., Erythrocytes: involved in transport of (O2 and CO2) Function exclusively within the vascular system try tosue E Leukocytes: Important part of defence and immune system Act mainly OUTSIDE blood vessels in the TISSUES i Platelets: play a vital role in the control of bleeding (haemostasis)by: 1- Plugging the defects in blood vessels 2- Activating the blood clotting cascade Methods used to study blood and bone marrow structure 9,855%,118,85 gl differently;55 is affinity - 51 To make a smear on a glass slide  after fixation  stained by a polychromatic stain (Giemsa, Wright, Leishman)  distinctive staining characteristics ( according to the affinity of the various cellular organelles to the different stains employed) Blood Smear: A- Basophilia (deep blue): affinity for the basic dye methylene blue RNA, DNAgitis, structures, characteristic of DNA in nucleus and RNA in the cytoplasm eg. Ribosomes B- Azurophelia (purple): affinity for azur dyes, typical of lysosomes (azurophilic granules in leucocytes) C- Eosinophilia (pink): affinity for acidic dye (eosin) particular feature for hemoglobin within erythrocytes D- Neutrophilia (salmon pink/ lilac): characteristic of the specific cytoplasmic granules of neutrophil leucocytes (the dye is NOT of neutral PH)  Erythrocytes -small, biconcave Cransport - O2, CO2) Ab · full of Ab - cytoplasm - organells, nuclei x Erythrocytes (RBCs) Male: 4.5-5.5 million/mm3 Small, pink biconcave discs - Female:4-5 million/mm3 7-8 µm in diameter * - 7.55 ene Transport oxygen and CO2 I cytoplasm is full of hemoglobin molecules - & Have no nuclei or organelles Pick up O2 at lung capillaries and release it at body tissue capillaries - During their maturation process, the erythrocytes extrude their nuclei, and the mature RBCs enter the bloodstream, without their nuclei  Size 7-8 µm in diameter (7.5 µm) Thickness 2.6-µm thick at the rim, but only 0.75-µm thick in the centre Erythrocytes can be used as a size reference for other cell types Fate: Survive for ~100-120 days in the circulation. Worn out RBCs are removed by macrophages of the spleen, bone marrow and liver. (without organelles  erythrocytes are unable to replace necessary enzyme and membrane proteins) LM: Blood film stained with Leishman:  Rounded  Non nucleated  Acidophilic (with pale central area) EM: Have no nucleus or organelles Filled with hemoglobin Electron dense and homogenous es 6 S- sexistHemryb", Eosinophilia/ acidophiliadue to their High content of Hemoglobin (which is a basic protein) The pale staining of the central region is a result of its biconcave disc shape Biconcave shape provides 20-30% greater surface area than a sphere relative to cell volume, thus significantly enhancing gas exchange The biconcave shape along with the fluidity of the plasma membrane (50% proteins) permits erythrocytes to bend and adapt to the small diameters and irregular turns of capillaries (3- 4μM in diameter Normochromic RBCs Erythrocyte consists of an outer plasma membrane enclosing hemoglobin and a limited number of enzymes necessary for maintenance of plasma membrane integrity and gas transport functions Immediately beneath the plasma membrane is a The cell membrane is meshwork of proteins(Spectrin and Ankyrin) highly selective and forming a cytoskeleton responsible for the flexible biconcave shape of erythrocyte This submembranous meshwork: Stabilizes the membrane Maintains the cell shape Provides the cell elasticity required for passage through capillaries Rouleaux appearance occurs to some extent in all films statitis sites" cises pathology Rouleaux formation: RBCs may adhere to one another loosely in stacks called Rouleaux (pile of coins) In slow (not in normal) circulation Due to surface tension caused by their biconcave surface (reversible) Reticutocytes erythrocyte (155, stage 11 Are the immature form, in which erythrocytes are released into the circulation from the bone marrow They still contain sufficient : mitochondria To complete cytoskeleton and the remaining ribosomes 20% of haemoglobin synthesis Golgi Final maturation into erythrocytes occurs within 24-48 hours of release The rate of release of reticulocytes into the circulation generally equals the rate of removal of spent erythrocytes by the spleen and liver Reticulocytes constitute slightly less than 1% of circulating red blood cells In routinely stained blood smears: reticulocytes canNOT be easily distinguished from mature erythrocytes. When fresh blood is incubated with basic dye ((brilliant cresyl blue)), a blue-stained reticular precipitate is formed in the reticulocytes due to the interaction of the dye with ribosomal RNA remnants, the technique is called supravital staining Reticulocytosis 1% - 51 An increase in the number of reticulocytes is considered an abnormality but the cell itself is not an abnormal erythrocyte Abnormalities of Erythrocytes  Anemia: a decrease in the total number of RBCs (and/or hemoglobin) & pathology Polycythemia: an increase in the total number of RBCs People living at high altitudes usually have higher RBC count as a response to lower oxygen levels. Athletes whose demand for oxygen is more elevated, also have higher RBC counts. Abnormalities of Erythrocytes Change from the normal Size Shape Staining properties of erythrocytes are important indicator of disease. However, some of these abnormalities may be found in healthy individuals Abnormal sizes: Microcytes(9 µm) &5.Is Anisocytosis(different sizes) (abnormal variations of the size) S- Abnormal staining: Hypochromia: Denotes a decrease in the intensity of staining Indicates a decreased amount of hemoglobin Frequently accompanies microcytosis Hypochromic microcytic anemia Abnormal shapes: Due to changes either in the cell membrane or Hb content Spherocytes Ovalocytes Poikilocytes The cells may show blunt/ pointed projections from their surfaces Sickle cell anemia results from abnormal hemoglobin Sickle cell One of the most sever changes in shape occurs during SICKLING of RBCs in sickle cell anemia where erythrocytes take on the form of crescents Howell-Jolly bodies: nuclear fragments left over from the nucleated precursors of the red cells  mobile army. forthe the body bone marrow At origin: ↑ Leukocytes ③ 5 types - e - ranulocytes tes contain granules X ranulocy Ag ·> - Itoplasmic & granules -I I -- honolobed les multi lobed - single, Mononuclear - nuckus Sing pink Small, salmon Neutrophils: · Monocytes Red - car. · eosinophils. - Lymphocytes blue · basophils - - ·: lang,  leukocytes neutronemphateate astrophie, sophis a - Granulocyte -> - specific is Non lysosome i specific (primary, Agranulate Azurophilic (ysozyme) - Momocyte Neutrophils lymghocyte - -- - I · larger primary, le Azurophilic (bactericidal) - Small numerous - Myeloperoxidase secondary - More - Acid hydrolase Gistofer in Definsins lyzosome - - phagocytic (bacteriocidall (bacteriostatis - e -> collagenase Le visible by with oval shape granules (Crystalloid) eosinophils:specific Stataraise coves crystalloid and and histaminate - extrance(pass: ↳ blue - Basophis: large dark granules, Leukocytes Originate in the bone marrow and released continuously into the blood Travel in bloodstream but function mainly OUTSIDE blood vessels (in loose CT) Leukocytes form a mobile army that helps protect the body from damage by bacteria, viruses, parasites, toxins and tumor cells 5 types organized into 2 groups depending on nuclear shape and cytoplasmic granules –Granulocytes (single, multi-lobed nucleus) I I. Neutrophils secondary granules II. Eosinophils III. Basophils a primary granules –Agranulocytes (mononuclear leukocyte) I. Lymphocytes II. Monocytes Leukocytes, or WBCs, are nucleated and subdivided into granulocytes and agranulocytes, depending on the presence or absence of specific granules in their cytoplasm These specific granules stain red with acidic stain such as eosin These specific granules stain with basic stain Granulocytes Cytoplasmic granules (containing enzymes or chemicals) makes cytoplasm look grainy Single multi-lobed nucleus (segmented) 58515 All are phagocytic; they engulf and consume foreign cells and material 3 main types: ↳ not of them ranulocytes; Small granules, pale pink/salmon pink all Large granules, Red Large granules, blue : - granules 15 nucleus ↓ 114 Cytoplasmic granules Specific granules Non-specific granules Secondary granules Azurophilic granules Lysosomes Primary granules Neutrophil - small granules and they hardly seen ↑ phagocytosis (1888 The most common leukocyte in blood 50 - 70% constitute 40-75% of circulating leukocytes * - Characterised by the shape of the nucleus which contains small lobed connected by thin filaments When mature there are usually 5 lobes connected by fine strands of nuclear material. In less mature neutrophils the nucleus is less lobulated 2-5 lobes in nucleus connected by “threads” of nuclear material (polymorphs) (18255.85, 8112.5- nucleus : Bone Marrowsentresses Light pink cytoplasm 5 lobes; 5x s Salmon pink Called neutrophils because cytoplasm takes up red (acidic) and blue (basic) stains equally  Specialized for responding to: 1. bacterial invasions 2. Acute infections $559566168558559584 -> site of infections 3. acute pyrogenic infections Neutrophils are short-lived cells with a half-life of 6-8 hours in blood and a life span of 1-4 days in connective tissues before dying by apoptosis. Neutrophils are the first WBCs that leave the blood in large numbers to reach the site of inflammation Cells of acute infection 1-The most abundant 2-The most motile 3-Neutrophil chemotactic factors (chemotaxins) are the first released body Bar we ↑ In females, the inactive X chromosome (Barr body) may appear as a drumstick-like appendage on one of the lobes of the nucleus (about 3% of neutrophils in peripheral blood)  ( n, gentes cosinophils Basophils) leukocytes -specific - - (secondary) Agranulagte Non Specific Granulocytes - CAzurophilic, lysosome, - Monocyte primary) Neutrophil lymphocyte - - --econdary I primary More less abundand Smaller cell wall) Site (actagainst large in - lysozyme (bacteriocidal) (basteriosidal) · Myelo peroxidase - phagocytin(bacteriostatic( - acid hydrolase lactoferrin inescape see A -collagenage specific oral in shap and sulfatuse barly visible by light microscope large Basophils: basophilise granules, ↳ blue histaminas external (pale): basic proteins to kill parasites ↳ Internal darker:  Granules in neutrophils Specific granules (secondary) Azurophilic granules (primary)/lyzomes (most numerous) (less numerous) Small in size Somewhat larger in size -Lysozyme: act against cell wall => -Myeloperoxidase (bacteriocidal) -Phagocytin (bactericidal) -Acid hydrolase -Lactoferrin (bacteriostatic) -Defensins -Collagenase (barely visible by light miscroscopy) Different names for neutrophils: Polymorphs Pus cells anaerobic environment -> Microphages Cells of acute inflammation The ability of neutrophils to survive in an anaerobic environment is highly advantageous, / because they can kill bacteria and help clean up debris in poorly oxygenated regions, for example, damaged or necrotic tissue lacking normal microvasculature Neutrophilia: increase in the number of neutrophils in the circulation this does not necessarily imply an increase in neutrophil production Intense muscular activity and administration of epinephrine can produce APPARENT neutroplelia they causes neutrophils in the marginating compartment to move into the circulating compartment Glucocorticoids: increase the mitotic activity of neutrophil precursors in the marrow  increase blood count of neutrophils Neutrophilia that occurs during bacterial infections  increase production of neutrophils for short duration of these cells in bone marrow Neutropenia  is it one of the of the granulocytes: Eosinophils -> lobulated;ii)nucleusay primales pres is a ·phagocytosis (1881B Accounts for 1-6% of leukocytes in circulating blood Usually have bi-lobed nuclei connected by a short “thread” of nuclear material Large cytoplasmic granules, which stain red with the acidic eosin dye Functions: Eosinophils are phagocytic cells but less bacteriocidal than neutrophils Eosinophils have a particular phagocytic affinity for antigen-antibody complex Help in ENDING allergic reactions and in fighting parasitic infections 3 in All eosinophils have receptors for IgE (important in the destruction of parasites, this is not present on neutrophils During allergic reactions Eosinophils undergo chemotaxis in response to histamine and eosinophil chemotactic factor of anaphylaxis (ECF-A) released from basophils and mast cells Eosinophils ameliorate some aspects of hypersensitivity reactions They neutralise histamine and produce a factor (eosinophil-derived inhibitor) which inhibits mast cell degranulation Specific granules (Crystalloid granules): -Oval in shape, with flattened crystalloid cores Crystalloid granule -Two parts: 1- Externum(pale):contains histaminase and sulfatase 2- Internum(dark):contains basic protein to kill parasites  gecondary The eosinophils granules are lysosomes and contain the usual lysosomal enzymes, they show a higher content of peroxidase than do the azurophilic granules of neutrophils and lack lysozyme and phagocytin primary secondary Eosinophilia: increase number of circulating eosinophils are found in 1- many types of parasitic disease (defense against parasites is one of their principle functions) high 2- in some allergic disease such as hay fever and asthma Basophils granules ('d,& masked or nucleus (is; T 1, - Rarest leukocyte –might not see these under the microscopes (less than 1%) Usually have bi-lobed, S-shaped nuclei obscured by the large basophilic granules Has large granules that stain dark purple/ blue in basic dyes (basophil= basic loving) Granules contain histamine, heparin and eosinophilic chemotactic factor that mediate inflammation in allergic reactions and parasitic infections basophils, 5. must cells.55, ↓ within circulatory (1 tissue of the body System Mast cell Agranulocytes -> primary granules (1915 Single non-lobulated nucleus Granules in cytoplasm are too small to see (nonspecific granules, azurophilic granules, primary granules, lysosomes) 2 types based on structure (not cell lineage): –Lymphocytes –Monocytes  Monocytes Largest leukocytes Constitute 2-10 % of leukocyte in peripheral blood Bluish cytoplasm (frosted glass appearance)& a large C- shaped nucleus Highly motile and phagocytic Travel through bloodstream to reach connective tissues, where they transform into macrophages (large phagocytic cells) Chronic infections -> site of infection ;'- $45 blood botle brain Are precursor cells of macrophages, osteoclasts, microglia, and other cells of the mononuclear phagocyte system in connective tissue L is All monocyte-derived cells are antigen-presenting cells antibodies.35. lymphocytesis is ess-antigens  MONONUCLEAR PHAGOCYTIC SYSTEM ( all characterized by phagocytic activity) osteoclasts Microglia Bone CNS Dust cells Kupffer Cells lung liver Dendritic cells Lymph node spleen macrophages Bone marrow Langerhans cells Connective tissue epidermis Lymphocytes Smallest leukocytes (slightly larger than erythrocytes) first: Neutrophils The second most common leukocyte in circulating blood and make up 20-25% of differential nee white cell count Round nucleus occupies most of cell volume Cytoplasm is light clear blue Increased numbers are commonly seen in viral infections f nucleus large small remnantcytoplasm etrainsm very not clear, full of cytoplasm ane Monocyte [ lysosomes. lymphopoiesis: cell in BM precursor I cells Blast = - ↓islood Bu Thymus ↓ Killer Natural ↓ lymphocyte - ↑ innate immunity Blymphocyte - cell LEsuppressor memory ic helper cell produce AB's adaptive immunity  Lymphopoiesis: the process by which lymphocytes are formed immunitys.5 innate - adaptive - 541-81 - Precursor cells in 1 - 5 antigen 812 they have specific bone marrow forigenbody; 5. antigen & 85.295, and they ac tagainst 9- six si it immune competant I 8 ; S. Ss lymphocytes, Natural killer+ && some of them: B lympocyte Thymus:T lymphocyte · immune incompetant"snie" 2, - Thymus -> adaptive immunity Bone Marrow Directly into blood BM =-15--;25 BM s1 $ 88 s ⑤, thymus $9.65. 295. BMS181 activation $5's - competes si si compant ·Ds immune we active halways See T Lymphocytes B Lymphocytes Natural killer lymphocytes tity. ne  The amount of cytoplasm depends upon state of activity of the lymphocyte, in circulating blood there is: 1- Predominance of small inactive lymphocytes (6-9 μm in diameter) 2- Large lymphocytes (9-15 μ m) make up about 3% of lymphocytes in peripheral blood represent activated lymphocytes en route to the tissues where they will become antibody-secreting plasma cells, they also include natural killer cells In the large lymphocyte  the cytoplasm is readily visible but in the small lymphocyte the cytoplasm is almost too sparse to be seen (contain few mitochondria, rudimentary golgi apparatus, minimal endoplasmic reticulum but large number of ribosomes account for basophilia (blue cytoplasm) ‫* هاض الساليد تحديدا حكت لو جبتلكم الرسمه اللي‬ Natural Killer:always active -81 Stain in ‫عاليسار وحكتلكم ايش ممكن تكون‬ To B gis1.. 1-B lymphocyte 2-T lymphocyte 3-killing(‫)ناسي االسم‬ 4-all of the following - 5-there is two answers correct /1+2 Bx ‫بما معناه انه ما بنقدر نحدد وهي بهاض الشكل اذا‬ T ‫ او‬B ‫رح تصير‬ ~ -*was active ‫ )ناسي‬killing ‫اما الصوره اللي عاليمني فهاي دائما‬ ( killing ‫االسم بس النوع الثالث اتوقع ببلش ب‬  Lymphocytes vary in life span according to their specific function, some live for a few days and some live for many years Cell mediated immunity T cells –Has different types, some directly kill foreign or infected cells; others activate phagocytes to destroy microbes Humoral immunity B cells –Differentiate into plasma cells –Secrete antibodies that bind to specific antigens and mark them for destruction by phagocytic cells Long term immunity Neutrophils and monocytes are highly phagocytic and engulf microorganisms and cell debris in a NON-SPECIFIC manner (Innate immunity) While the activity of lymphocytes is always directed against SPECIFIC foreign agents (Adaptive immunity) exiss's o I I The small lymphocyte has scanty cytoplasm (contain few organelles but large number of ribosomes ) Account for basophilic Innate immunity: We are born with innate immunity. It is non-specific, which means that the innate cells are not able to distinguish one type of pathogen from another. Adaptive (acquired) immunity: is the body's ability to recognize and respond to specific foreign substances (antigens: microbes, parts of microbes, or non-microbial substances, such as pollen) Cells of innate immunity: Neutrophils, Basophils, Eosinophils, Mast cells, Monocytes (macrophages and dentritic cells), natural killer cells Cells of adaptive immunity: B and T lymphocytes  innateitis - 8.Is a scie 11, 15 ↑ antigening immune rn. as - -  (55 -) S Suppressor T cells switch off the immune response when the stimulus is removed Damage to suppressor cells can result in autoimmune disease V [ Memory cells allow a more rapid response if the antigen appears again later which allows a very rapid response upon subsequent exposure to the same antigen. Basis of immunity/vaccination Natural killer cells and T cells play a major role in graft rejection ‫ٮﺎﺳﺐ وﻻ ﻻ‬+‫ٮﺎه ﻛويﺲ وﻣ‬+‫ڡ(ٮﻠ‬%‫ٮ‬%‫ٮﺴيﺞ ال?ى اﺳ‬+‫ﺪ إذا ﻫﺬا اﻟ‬9 ‫ﺤﺪٮ‬%‫ڡ?ى ٮ‬+ ‫ﺎ ﻣﻬﻤﺔ‬9 ‫ﺤﻼٮ‬+‫ٮﺴيﺞ أو اﳾ ﻫﺬول اﻟ‬+‫ت(ٮر ع (ٮ‬%‫ﻟﻤﺎ ٮ‬ ventrophils lymphocytes Monocytes eosinophils Basophils - Never Let Monkeys Eat Bananas - - - Most common to least Thrombocytes (Platelets) Small non-nucleated cytoplasmic fragments Formed by fragmentation of the cytoplasm of megakaryocytes in the bone marrow Number: 200,000-400,000/mm3 Shape: biconvex discs Cytoplasm: purple, granular Diameter: 2-4 um Lifespan about 10 days  cytoplasmic processes 8I cytosol I1 19.4;;;58. ↑ [ 3 sinoscaleene blood flow 205413852 11:58 0 SY? SS, sis & & processes II se circula tion 1  Control the bleeding by plugging the defects in blood vessels and activating blood clotting cascades In stained blood smears, platelets often appear in clumps *Platelete has 2 zones In stained blood smears, platelets 1- Outer pale basophilic (clear) perpheriral zone: often appear in clumps hyalomere 2- Central dark granular zone: granulomere Hyalomere: contains cytoskeleton and membranous channels Cytoskeletal elements Microtubule Actin filaments Membrane channels &cell membrane (1 Open canalicular system - &led invagination 55 of granulomere 955-3 - 3 level Dense tubular system Isa of content thegranule (1 ssi Maintain shape and help contractions of platelets and squeezing Granulomere: contains granules and organelles Alpha granules: clotting factors, growth factors Dense (delta) granules: serotonin (absorbed - from plasma), ATP, ADP Lambda granules: lysosomes (aid in clot- resorption)  I Their main function is to continually monitor the vascular system and detect any damage to the endothelial lining of the vessels. If the endothelial lining breaks, the platelets adhere to the damaged site and initiate a highly complex chemical process that produces a blood clot Thus preventing blood loss platelet (12.5-,815911 - a aggregations 8.1995. and they will come is aDis together forming aggregation 1110 Thank you