Indian Society: Images and Realities PDF

BSOG-171 INDIAN SOCIETY: IMAGES AND REALITIES School of Social Sciences Indira Gandhi National Open University EXPERT COMMITTEE Prof. Abhijit Dasgupta Prof. TribhuwanKapur Dr. Archana Singh Delhi School of Economic Discipline of Sociology, SOSS Discipline of Sociology Delhi University, Delhi IGNOU, New Delhi SOSS, IGNOU, New Delhi Prof. Maitrayee Chaudhary Prof. Nita Mathur Dr. Kiranmayi Bhushi CSSS, Jawaharlal Nehru University Discipline of Sociology, SOSS Discipline of Sociology New Delhi IGNOU, New Delhi SOSS, IGNOU, New Delhi Prof. Nilika Mehrotra Prof. Anu Aneja Prof. Rabindra Kumar CSSS, Jawaharlal Nehru University School of Gender and Development Discipline of Sociology New Delhi Studies, IGNOU,New Delhi SOSS, IGNOU, New Delhi Prof. Abha Chauhan Dr. Pushpesh Kumar Dr. R. Vashum Department of Sociology Department of Sociology Discipline of Sociology Jammu University, Jammu Hyderabad University, Hyderabad SOSS, IGNOU, New Delhi Prof. Debal Singha Roy Dr. Abhijit Kundu Dr. Shubhangi Vaidya Discipline of Sociology, SOSS Department of Sociology School of Inter and Trans-disciplinary IGNOU, New Delhi Venkateshwara College Studies, IGNOU, New Delhi Delhi University COURSE PREPARATION TEAM Block Unit Writer Block 1 Ideas of India Unit 1 Civilization and Culture Ms.Kanika Kakkar, Delhi University Unit 2 India as Colony Dr. Uzma Azhar, Independent Scholar, Delhi Unit 3 Nation, State and Society Dr. Kusum Lata, Jamia Millia Islami Univeristy Block 2 Institutions and Processes Unit4 Village India Dr. UzmaAzhar, Independent Scholar Unit 5 Urban India Dr. UzmaAzhar, Independent Scholars Unit 6 Language and Religion Ms. Geetanjali Atri, Reasearch Scholar, JNU Unit 7 Caste and Class Prof. Rabindra Kumar, IGNOU Unit 8 Tribe and Ethnicity Prof. RabindraKumar,IGNOU Unit 9 Family and Marriage Prof. Rabindra Kumar, IGNOU Unit 10 Kinship Prof. Rabindra Kumar, IGNOU Block 3 Critiques Unit 11 Class , Power and Inequality Ms. Kanika Kakar, Delhi Univeristy Unit 12 Resistance and Protest Ms. Kanika Kakar Delhi University COURSE COORDINATOR: Dr. Kiranmayi Bhushi and Prof. Rabindra Kumar, SOSS, IGNOU GENERAL EDITOR: Prof. Subhadra Channa (Unit 1-6 and 9, 10) and Prof. Ehasan Ul Haq (Unit 7, 8, 10, 11 and 12 Cover Design: Mr. Sandeep Maini Print Production Mr. Manjit Singh Mr. Suresh Kumar Section Officer (Pub.), SOSS, IGNOU, New Delhi JAT, SOSS, IGNOU, New Delhi January, 2020 © Indira Gandhi National Open University, 2020 ISBN: All rights reserved. No part of this work may be reproduced in any form, by mimeography or any other means, without permission in writing from the Indira Gandhi National Open University. Further information on the Indira Gandhi National Open University courses may be obtained from the University’s Office at Maidan Garhi, New Delhi-110 068 or visit our website: http://www.ignou.ac.in Printed and published on behalf of the Indira Gandhi National Open University, New Delhi, by Director, School of Social Sciences. Laser Typeset by : Tessa Media & Computers, C-206, A.F.E.-II, Okhla, New Delhi Printed at : Course Contents Page No. BLOCK 1 IDEAS OF INDIA 7 Unit 1 Civilization and Culture 9 Unit 2 India as Colony 22 Unit 3 Nation, State and Society 35 BLOCK 2 INSTITUTIONS AND PROCESSES 47 Unit 4 Village India 49 Unit 5 Urban India 62 Unit 6 Language and Religion 75 Unit 7 Caste and Class 88 Unit 8 Tribe and Ethnicity 102 Unit 9 Family and Marriage 117 Unit 10 Kinship 130 BLOCK 3 CRITIQUES 145 Unit 11 Class, Power and Inequality 147 Unit 12 Resistance and Protest 161 GLOSSARY 176 FURTHER READINGS 181 COURSE INTRODUCTION: INDIAN SOCIETY: IMAGES AND REALITY This course aims to introduce the students to various aspects of Indian society. Indian society has had a long history, dating as far back as 2000 BCE. In this long span of its chequered history, India witnessed many upheavals and periods of calm. There were shifts in political formations, as well as new economic conditions, technological interventions, infusion of new ideas, people and culture. All these influences and confluences make Indian society what it is today. India is also a diverse land of many ethnicities, linguistic groups, religions and other social formations and categories, all of which contribute to making Indian society a complex one. Capturing this complexity of Indian society has always been a challenge and thus there have been many varieties of explanations from varied vantage points. In this course we examine many such perceptions of Indian society and also relate these conceptions to the picture available on the ground. In doing, so we have taken into consideration the continuities and discontinuities through its various institutions and processes. The course is divided into three themes, which we call blocks. Each block addresses a certain aspect of Indian society. Block 1: Ideas of India deals with various conceptions about India throughout its history. The first unit of this course focuses on India’s early civilizational heritage and diverse culture. The unit discusses various ways in which India was conceptualised: in terms of the institutions and traits, through capturing of the cultural essence or by trying to understand the way the civilizational core or essence is transmitted or diffused. This unit captures the richness and diversity of India in terms of geographical variations, the social structures and cultures. Also the religious, socio-political and historical past are significant to understand the evolution of Indian society. The unit further highlights the fact that no society can be properly understood without reference to its history. In our second unit, therefore, we look at India’s colonial past to see how the rich tradition of thoughts and practices of India before the British was substantially transformed under the influence of western philosophy, culture and practices during the colonial period. European travelers had been visiting India since long and their accounts describe Indian society in glowing terms. When Europeans came to India, India’s economy was one of the wealthiest. For the Europeans, ruling India was at a different level as compared to other colonies. Trying to understand India therefore becomes significant for colonisation of the subcontinent. Various studies were undertaken in this period that try to unravel the mystery that was India for Europeans. These European perspectives on India are critically analysed in this unit. The third unit of these block deals with relationship between nation, state and society. Existence of state is generally associated with the nation. It is an erroneous understanding to assume that state and nation are the same. The transition from stateless to state societies in India did not coincide with the emergence of nation-state. For a long time India had state formations in which the idea of ‘Indian’ nation-state was not present. It was during British colonial rule and the struggle against it that this idea of India as a unified nation-state took shape. So in a way when we discuss the relationship between nation, state and society in India, we are narrating colonial and post-colonial histories of India. Block 2: Institutions and Process attempts to look at Indian society through it various institutions. We examine social formations of villages and urban centres. The block examines various aspects of social categories and formations in terms of religion and language, caste and class, tribe and ethnicity. This block also looks at the institution of family and marriage and how they are organised through the kinship systems. The first two unit of these block look at village and urban India. In both these units we examine some essential elements and dimensions of village and urban India. Following this, we try and examine some misconceptions about Village India and Urban India and examine these conceptions against the ground realities. Both language and religion are one of the main aspects of Indian society that have significant influence on the socio- cultural practices, as well as on political and economic life of Indian society. We take a brief overview of religious and language diversity in India and how language and religion influence each other. The unit also talks about the issues of language and religion which came up during different periods of history and after India becomes an independent country. Caste is another crucial aspect of Indian society and unique to Indian system of hierarchy. Caste system also has interface with class, which unit 7 examines in detail. This unit discusses features of caste system and mobility through the concept of sanskritisation. Finally, it deals with classes in rural and urban India, its uneven growth and relationship between caste and class. Unit 8 deals with the definition of tribe in the Indian context. The definition of tribe is examined both from the point of view of the government dealing with them (British and Indian) and that of the academics. Besides this, the unit also discusses the concept associated with ethnic relations, relationships between tribe and ethnicity and the manifestation of ethnicity. Unit 9 discusses family and marriage. It discusses the nature of the institution of family and marriage in India. Then it looks at the factors responsible for changes in these institution and finally, it also mentions the emerging patterns of family and marriage in India. Unit 10 defines the kinship system and also focuses on major aspects of patrilineal kinship systems in north and south India. Finally, it gives a brief account of kinship organization of matrilineal communities in north-east and south-west India. Block 3: Critiques. In this block, there are two units that focus on inequality and resistance. The units discuss how resistances and critique have come about due to inequality and hierarchy in Indian society. Unit 11 deals with relevance and implication of the class. It also focuses on conceptual framework and finally it discusses continuity and shift to a new conceptualisation. The last unit of this course deals with resistance and protests. The unit captures the Hindu social universe and also discusses early critiques and struggles against the hegemony i.e. patriarchal and cultural. Finally it discuss the post independence Scheduled Castes (Dalits) activism. Block 1 Ideas of India Ideas of India 8 Civilization and Culture UNIT 1 CIVILIZATION AND CULTURE* Structure 1.0 Objectives 1.1 Introduction 1.2 Approaches to the Study of Indian Civilization 1.2.1 The Cataloguing of Traits 1.2.2 The Reading of Cultural Essence 1.2.3 The Study of Cultural Communication 1.2.4 Analysing Indian Civilization as a Type 1.3 Understanding the Geography of India 1.3.1 The Perennial/ Nuclear Zones 1.3.2 The Route Zones 1.3.3 The Zones of Relative Isolation 1.4 Viewing India from a Structural and Cultural Perspective 1.5 Discourses on India’s Civilizational Unity 1.6 Let Us Sum Up 1.7 References 1.8 Specimen Answers to Check Your Progress 1.0 OBJECTIVES After reading this unit, you should be able to: elaborate on different approaches to the study of Indian Civilization; give an account of India in terms of its cultural and historical geography and how these contribute to its diversity and plurality; explain how despite the underlying plurality, India is an all encompassing civilization; and. examine the various elements that have played a role in unifying Indian civilisation. 1.1 INTRODUCTION India is one of the oldest civilizations in the world and home to half a billion people. It’s known for its cultural diversity and plurality. It is beyond the scope of one discipline to capture all the diversity as they are in every dimension of life, in the population, in the geography, environment, modes of livelihood and above all in its cultures. There are four broad approaches to study Indian civilization. The first section of the unit focuses on these approaches. Indian population represents a variety of historical migrations that has resulted in racial, ethnic, and religious diversity. The populations concentrated in different regions, speak diverse languages and have a distinct way of life that sets them apart from each other. The ecological and physiographic variations of different *Contributed by Kanika Kakkar, Delhi University 9 Ideas of India regions of India explain its richness and diversity. The Section 1.3 elaborates on the cultural and historical geography of India. In the Section 1.4 the social structure and cultural diversity of Indian civilization is examined. The religious and socio-political historical past are significant to understand the evolution of Indian society. It highlights the fact that no society can be properly understood without reference to its history. Section 1.5 reflects on the significant elements that contribute to the unity of Indian civilization. It highlights that regionalism was never a significant threat to Indian civilization’s unified identity in spite of internal conflicts and almost continuous warfare. 1.2 APPROACHES TO THE STUDY OF INDIAN CIVILIZATION The term civilisation comes from the Latin word civis, meaning “citizen” or “townsman.” Thus a semblance of complexity is evident in the definition of civilisation. The term assumes some agricultural practices, trade, some evidence of planned dwellings, multiple cultures, art, religion and some administrative and political structures. Civilization is a complex of human grouping/ society with cultural-material and non-material/ideational traits and a defined polity. Thus the Indus Valley Civilization whose society is revealed to us through its artefacts and monuments is considered a civilisation. India is considered one of oldest continuing civilizations because its origin is traced back to the Harappan civilization. There have been innumerable scholarly accounts focusing on the Indian civilization devoted to understanding of the nature of Indian society and culture. In doing so, these accounts illuminate diversity and richness of India as a civilization and provide multiple conceptual tools/methodology used to study it. Cohn (1971) points out that four broad approaches/directions to understand Indian civilization can be derived from these accounts. They are: Catalogue Approach Cultural Essence Approach Cultural Communication Approach Approaching India as a Type The ensuing sub-sections provide their elaborate account. 1.2.1 The Cataloguing of Traits This approach entails recording of traits, institutions and qualities that are assumed to be essentially Indian. The variations and deviations that India may represent are examined in terms of statistical measures of mean or mode. India and its population reflect diversity which may be explicable in terms of geographical, ecological, regional, class or religious differences. However, the emphasis of the approach is to list out traits or qualities that are distinctly Indian or contribute to Indianness. This, of course, is primarily based on assuming the notion of what it means to be Indian and these may vary from scholar to scholar. 10 Civilization and Culture Activity 1 Make a list of traits or institutions or qualities that are unique to India. Compare your list if possible with the others students at your study centre. 1.2.2 The Reading of Cultural Essence This approach entails discovery of essential style and process — the cultural essenceas truly representative of Indian civilization since its inception, but not trait or content. The cultural essence reflects India in its true spirit, which it has imbibed over the years in the wake of historical and various other exigencies. It indicates India is not statistically measurable. Rather, its essence may be understood in terms of concepts like ‘unity in diversity’, tolerance and brotherhood, respect for the spiritual and divine. The concept of ethos is essentially abstract and deductive in nature. It again is highly subjective as a concept. 1.2.3 The Study of Cultural Communication The cultural communication approach entails focusing on the ways and processes through which the content of the civilizational system are transmitted and communicated through different levels of society. It draws attention towards the structural integration of the Indian civilization. The works of social anthropologists, McKim Marriott (1955) and Robert Redfield (1956) provide a significant basis to understand the unity and interdependence of various parts of a civilizational entity. Marriott highlights cultural synthesis and interaction between ‘Great Tradition’ and ‘Little Tradition’ while focusing on festivals celebrated in a small north Indian village, Kishangarhi in Uttar Pradesh. Similarly, Redfield’s analysis reflects constant interaction and communication between great tradition and little tradition in the form of folk-urban continuum, which stands for symbiotic and interdependent relationship between the two. You can read more about views of Marriott and Redfield regarding the unity of a civilizational entity, society and culture in Box 1 and 2 Box 1: Parochialization and Universalization McKim Marriott’s work Little Communities in an Indigenous Civilization (1955), proposes the twin concepts of Universalization and Parochialization for explaining the cultural exchange between great tradition and little tradition in India. Universalization is the process of carrying further the great tradition by encompassing the elements of little tradition. In other words it relates to the systematisation and standardisation of local rites, values and cultural ideals by universal sanskritic belief system. To explain his point he takes the example of the diwali — the Festival of Lights celebrated locally, in Kishangarhi village to propitiate goddess of wealth and prosperity Saurti. He elaborates that goddess Lakshmi may be a universalised form of Saurti of the little tradition as the former is also symbolic of wealth and prosperity. In contrast to the universalization process is parochialization. It stands for the downward spread of rites, beliefs and cultural ideals of universal appeal to suit the local environs. It reflects the creativity of little communities within India’s indigenous civilization. Mariott explains this process by citing the example Naurtha festival in Kishangarhi, pointing it as a parochialized version of Navarathri in which nine different consecrates of the Sanskritic goddess Durga is propitiated for nine successive days. 11 Ideas of India Box 2: Little and Great Traditions Robert Redfield’s work Peasant Society and Culture: An Anthropological Approach to Civilization (1956) is based on his experiences with Latin American peasants. However, like McKim Marriott he too discovered that the peasant-based societies were not isolated and bounded. Peasants’ way of life is influenced by tribes, towns and cities people. He viewed peasant society as a system of social relations, with relationships extending outside it to wider communities. His emphasis was to highlight the interdependence of peasant community as bearers of little tradition on townsfolk and populace who represented great tradition. 1.2.4 Analysing Indian Civilization as a Type This approach is predominantly popular with comparative sociologists. According to this approach Indian civilization is seen as a distinct type in juxtaposition with other societies and culture. The emphasis is to view Indian society as a traditional society, which is experiencing processes, such as modernisation that illustrate cultural, social and historical principles. The aim is however, not to read distinct values or aspects that are unique to India’s structure, but typify it on the basis of what it has in common with other societies and culture and then to examine variations. For example, India may be seen as a type in being a village society or an agrarian society as this allows comparisons with other societies and cultures which may display a similarity in terms of presence of a rural life and community. However, to view India as a caste society will be a futile exercise as the concept/phenomenon of caste is unique to India. This rules out the possibility for making India’s cross-cultural/societal comparisons. The unique is thus ‘scientifically incomprehensible’ in view of this approach (Cohn 1971:4). Check Your Progress 1 i) Complete the following Sentences a) The cultural communication approach involves.......................... b)..........................and.......................are two eminent social anthropologists associated with the cultural communication approach to the Indian civilization. c) Classifying Indian civilization as a type implies focusing on making.................. rather than examining aspects that are distinct and unique to India’s social structure. ii) How is cataloguing of traits different from cultural essence approach to understand Indian civilization? Elaborate in three sentences....................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................... 12 Civilization and Culture 1.3 UNDERSTANDING THE GEOGRAPHY OF INDIA Indian civilization has complex and deeply rooted historical traditions, with a wide variation in custom and behaviour regionally and with the social structure of a particular region (Cohn 1971:7). Much of the diversity and regional variations in India may be explained on the grounds of variations in her geography. Further, it is the basic physiography of India that has provided a broad framework for a persistent historical, cultural and political pattern. It therefore, becomes significant to take an account of its (historical) geography. Cohn lists out three zones into which India may be divided in a broad geographical way. These are: The Perennial or Nuclear Zones The Route Zones The Zones of Relative Isolation A description of these zones is provided below: 1.3.1 The Perennial/Nuclear Zones The perennial zones are the fertile river basins, plains and delta. Historically, they have been centres/nucleus of human settlement, high population density, political activity and a stable state system. They have settled agriculture practices. They are known for being trade centres of agricultural and craft commodities. Various pre-modern and modern cities have emerged in nuclear zones. India is marked by such zones both in north and south India. Historically, the river basins and plains around Peshawar led to the emergence of first nuclear zone in northern India which is Gandhara, a town that is now in Pakistan. This region played a pivotal role in spreading the influences from western and central Asia to India. The Sutlej-Jamuna doab and the Gangese- Jamuna doab formed the major nuclear zones of north. These comprised of cities like Kurukshetra-Panchala, Kanauj, Panipat, Delhi, Agra, which have had a vibrant politico-historical past. Kosala, the present day Central Uttar Pradesh, Bengal and Saurahastra, the contemporary Gujarat are other examples of nuclear zones of north. Each of these zones have distinct linguistic traditions and owing to topographical and climatic variations have evolved a distinctive cropping pattern. There are five major nuclear zones in south India. These are –Andhra, Tamil Nadu , Kerala, Maharashtra and Mysore. Andhra is the home of Telugu speaking people. It is constituted by the rich agricultural delta areas of Godavari and Krishna river. Tamil Nadu is the site of the Chola and Pandyan kingdom, and inhabits Tamil speaking people. It comprises of fertile plains of Pennar river and Kaveri delta and is densely populated. Maharashtra is the Marathi speaking area. It bears similarity with Mysore, the home of Kannada speaking population in agricultural practices. Both the zones are known for dry agriculture with millet, maize and gram being prominent crops. Also, unlike Tamil Nadu the two zones display a dispersed settlement pattern. Kerala/Malabar forms the south western part of India. It stands distinct from other zones in the south owing to its height due to the Niligiri ranges and the rain it receives. The Western Ghats isolate it from 13 Ideas of India other zones in south and render it a distinct culture and social structure, visible in the practice of matriliny by the Nayar community. However, similar to Andhra and Tamil Nadu, Kerala displays agriculture based on wet rice cultivation. 1.3.2 The Route Zones Malwa provides a typical example of a route zone. It connects north India with the western coast and Deccan. It acts as a passage for invaders and traders to reach nuclear zones of attraction. It is a distinct cultural region, lying towards south of Aravali ranges. It is a semi-arid region. The route zones have no unified and persistent political tradition. Socially and culturally, they are mosaics rather than having distinctive culture and social structure (Cohn 1971: 26).They are areas of settlement of migrant population. 1.3.3 The Zones of Relative Isolation The zones of relative isolation are relatively inaccessible and geographically lesser conducive areas for human settlement. Ladakh for instance is not only icy cold but relatively cut off due to high mountains ranges. And therefore has sparse settlements. A village in the Ladakh region is relatively isolated due to high mountain ranges (Photo credit : Kiranmayi Bhushi) The northern part of the country is hilly and mountainous and represents several zones of relative isolation like: a) The area in the northern arc. This is constituted by the regions adjoining the borders of Baluchistan and Afghanistan. It is inhabited by loosely organised tribes who have been Islamised. b) The areas around Gilgit and Jammu and Kashmir having a unique cultural tradition, assimilating Hindus from the plains. c) The areas along the Himalayas in the plains extending through Nepal border, Bhutan and Sikkim and place where the Brahmaputra River enters Assam 14 plains. These represent dual cultural influence that of Tibetan-Buddhism Civilization and Culture and Hindu beliefs transmitted from the plains. d) In the hilly and forested tracts of north east, the area between Burma and India. The area is home to various tribes reflecting south-eastern influence. e) The Rajuptana/ Marwar is a region of relative isolation in the north west India. Since, the 10th century it is inhabited by the Rajputs and other refugees from Muslim invaders who established their culture over the scattered tribes of the region. In addition, there are two significant zones of isolation in central India. These are: a) This is the area running through Vindhya mountains, eastern Gujarat, Narmada River, eastern Banaras from where Kaimur hills are visible. b) The mountainous terrain south of Vindhya range, northern Maharashtra, Madhya Pradesh, north western Orissa and south eastern Bihar. Activity 2 What do you think are the sources that contribute to diversity of the three geographical zones discussed above? Note down your thoughts in a notebook. Check Your Progress 2 i) Complete the following sentences a)......................................are inaccessible and geographically lesser conducive areas for human settlement. b) The perennial /nuclear zones include........................................... c) Malwa provides a typical example of a........................................ d) Socially and culturally route zones are a..................................... 1.4 VIEWING INDIA FROM A STRUCTURAL AND CULTURAL PERSPECTIVE The social structure and culture of Indian civilization is deeply influenced by its past. The history of Indian civilization reveals that religion, economy and politics played a significant role in shaping its social structure and culture. It is the mythic- religious past and direct political past (strongly dependent on the economy) , which provide a basis to understand mutual alliances and tensions between the various regional political entities that existed in pre-colonial India. The mythic and religious are intertwined with the political and myths, such as those of sacred kingship are often invoked to justify present political hierarchies and relationships. Numerous invasions, migrations and a porous and accepting religion has added diversity to the Indian population and given it an essentially pluralistic content. 15 Ideas of India However, this does not imply India may not be perceived as a singular entity/ unit, a nation. Structurally and culturally Indian civilization is highly segmented and stratified. The previous section illustrated India as regionally segmented. Hinduism is not a doctrinal religion and more of a way of life. The sub-continent has allowed the flourishing of religions such as Buddhism, Jainism and Sikhism and accepted outside religions like Islam and Christianity. Thus the religious past of India manifests a high level of differentiation and absorption of diverse elements. The great tradition of India in terms of the hierarchy of varna-order and the prolific jati system is an all- encompassing system of social order that has so permeated the Indian sub-continent that incoming religions such as Islam and Christianity have also accepted this social order in practice if not in ideology. The present day social and political order draws significantly from the past in letting the caste system of varna and local jatis play significant role in the arena of power dynamics and formation of social networks and groups. Even in contemporary India a person’s identity is linked to his/her jati and varna identity and legitimized by reference to some imagined and mythical past. Activity 3 In addition, to Hinduism what are the other major religions practised in India? List them out in your notebook. The connections with religious past also provide a crucial means for identification with a distinct kinship group and particular ancestry. Thus, Hindus visit Gaya and Haridwar to perform rituals for their dead, where priests maintain books tracing the genealogical history of their clients. The varna and jati systems rule the social world by its superimposition on the kinship system by the rule of jati endogamy. There is also the concept of generational or blood feuding that is a derivative of kinship and practiced in societies where kinship still plays a key role. Thus, we could come across households and clans whose members may not enter into marital alliances or inter-dine with each other as their ancestors in the previous generations had disputes or quarrels. The influence of kinship and the jati system as an extended kin group restricts the social mobility and confines people to groups identified by the past more than the present. Nonetheless, this perception of past has been changing over the years, particularly since the end of 19th century when our nationalist leaders started to portray India as a nation and its population as a unit. India is no longer perceived simply as a segment or fragment, divided into several regions/states with its population representing different religious/ social identities. In 1947 following its independence from the British, India was declared as a secular state. The overtly Hindu symbols were avoided and a mix of religions were represented in the formation of the national symbols, to reiterate its secular character. Secularism in India refers to a respect for all religions and not its western counterpart of no religion. Thus, the flag of the country has a Buddhist wheel of law. The national emblem is made of lions, taken from the seal of the Buddhist king, Asoka. Further, jana, gana, mana was adopted as the national anthem spelling out peoples and regions of India, clearly reinforcing its unified identity, despite the underlying 16 diversities. In short, the concern of the nationalist leaders like Jawaharlal Nehru had been to portray India as essentially representative of the principle of ‘unity Civilization and Culture in diversity’. The principle of unity and diversity reflects India’s ability ‘to absorb and reshape what is foreign’ (Cohn 1971:57). India’s civilization represents assimilation and absorption of elements from long period of several waves of immigrant rule. This has indeed contributed to its socio-cultural richness and pluralism. However, the following section focusing on Embree’s account on unity of India’s civilizational past, raises questions regarding appropriateness of viewing Indian society and culture in view of ‘unity in diversity’. Check Your Progress 3 i) Complete the following sentences by filling in the blank spaces a) The mythic/ritual past for Hindus relates to................................... b) In addition to the religious past,.................................provides a basis to understand Indian social structure. c) The...................................., reinforce India’s unified identity, despite the prevalence of diversities. 1.5 DISCOURSES ON INDIA’S CIVILIZATIONAL UNITY The unified identity of Indian civilization is a matter of discussion and debate. Embree (1989) presents three different views. On one hand there are those who deny the unity of the Indian civilization. The second view contrarily, sees India as an all- encompassing civilization and unified entity. The third view is a synthesis of the first, two positions. According to this view India is a land of composite culture, reflective of ‘unity and diversity’. The advocates of the first view are those who fall in line with the geographer Spate’s thought that historically India is constituted of ‘perennial/nuclear regions’, which have played a crucial role in shaping and structuring its regional geography and socio-cultural and political history. The perennial/nuclear regions are areas of high population density and activity and stand in distinction from not only each other but also zones which are relatively isolated. As we have seen in Section 1.2, according to this view Indian civilization is witness to variations in regional geography, which in turn explains the variations in its socio-cultural traditions and levels of political development. This view purports the concept of regionalism. That regionalism is a force which challenges the idea of an all-Indian civilisation emerges clearly in the colonial works, Hobson-Jobson and that of Strachey. These works view unity of India as artificially created by the colonial conquest of the country that would last until the exercise of imperial power. According to these India is a land of numerous regions and hence it would be wrong to perceive people residing here as ‘Indians’. Contrary, to such colonial conceptualisation we find many Indians and nationalist leaders asserting physical, political, social and religious unity of India as a civilizational legacy. The 1885 meeting of Indian National Congress provides a testimony of such claims. The proponents of the second view feel that despite the continued significance of nuclear regions of historical geography there exists reality of an all Indian civilization. They view colonial emphasis on regionalism as a misreading of Indian history. 17 Ideas of India The third view that pronounces Indian civilization as displaying ‘unity in diversity’ finds one of the earliest expression in the historian, Vincent Smith’s Oxford History of India, 1919. This is taken as the most appropriate basis to understand Indian civilization’s uniqueness and distinctiveness from other world cultures. However, Embree rejects the characterisation of India’s civilizational history in terms of ‘unity in diversity’. Reaffirming the second view, Embree attributes unity of India to the Brahmanical ideology and tradition, which is a pervasive force with the Hindus who form the majority of its population. He contrasts it with Hinduism, which he relates to religious and social practices with innumerable regional and local variants and manifestations that developed in the subcontinent over its long history since the 3rd century BCE. On the other hand, according to him, the Brahmanical ideology represents a uniform and coherent set of statements in the classical texts and inheritance from historical experiences pertaining to philosophy of life and world- view. It provides meaning to the lives of majority of Indian population and hence,may be regarded as the significant force contributing to the unity of Indian civilization.The notions like karma and reincarnation, concept of dharma, and a sense of a hierarchical social order with respect for Brahmans and rituals are significant contents of the Brahmanic ideology. These ideological canons articulated with political experiences underlying “imperial institutions brought a variety of regions under a central authority”(Embree 1989: 12). While the unifying role that the Brahmanical ideology played during the Mauryan empire is doubtful, after the latter’s disintegration, it emerged as “an articulated theory of society, with its religious and social sanctions, for political power” (ibid: 17). The deference paid to Brahmanical culture by the rulers regarding the nature of governance and kingship was noteworthy even when India came under Islamic rule. Activity 4 Collect some information on the Mauryan Empire. Write a note of about two-three pages covering: a) its major rulers, b) its expanse or spread in the Indian subcontinent, c) its role in spreading of religions like Jainism and Buddhism. Yet, another factor according to Embree that provides unifying linkages to Indian civilization relates to the poltico-historical experience that was shaped owing to the intrusion of external powers – the Islamic, and the European. This is contrary to colonial and nationalist imagination of unity of India’s civilization. The nationalists viewed Indian history in terms of great empires created by the Maurya and the Gupta rulers. This was primarily a reaction to the colonial construction that India’s political unity was artificial, and created by imperial power. In Embree’s opinion both the Brahmanical ideology and the two external intrusions have been significant in restricting the emergence of nation-states and countering the growth of regionalism in India. This is unique from the European experience. In Europe there are around 25 nation-states. Unlike the European Church, the Brahmanical tradition placed the ruler or the king at the centre of universal order, without stressing on the criteria of territorial sovereignty. Further, the intrusion of Islamic and European civilizations had an all encompassing effect 18 on India, destroying the scope and possibility for different regions to political Civilization and Culture independence. According to Embree regionalism has not been a counterforce to unity of India as it has been made to appear in many writings. This however, according to him does not imply India may be characterised in terms of ‘unity and diversity’. The unification of India may be attributed to the two external invasions and the pervasive Brahmanical ideology. The forces that prevented attempts at political unification of India in the historical past should be seen not as instances of regionalism but internal political rivals to imperial institutions. Check Your Progress 4 i) What are the major forces that unify Indian civilization?..................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................... ii) What do you understand by Brahmanical ideology? (Explain briefly)..................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................... iii) Regionalism has not been a counterforce to the unity of Indian civilization. Elaborate in four sentences...................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................... 1.6 LET US SUM UP In this unit, we saw the composite culture and pluralistic content of the Indian civilization. We first focused on various approaches to the study of Indian culture and civilisation. Next, we elaborated on the cultural and historical geography of India and how this reflects richness and diversity of the Indian culture and civilization. Further, we examined how the structural and cultural past of the Indians have a significant bearing on their present. We saw how the ritual and socio-political past of Indians link them with specific religious and kinship groups. 19 Ideas of India We saw a reworking of the bounded identity of Indians in the efforts of nationalists, particularly following India’s independence, as they wanted to represent the country as an unified political entity, reflecting the principle of ‘unity in diversity’. In the last section we examined Embree’s understanding regarding the unity of Indian civilization. We observed India as representing two realities: that of various regions and unifying ideology of Brahmanical tradition and external intrusions. Embree’s work focuses on the aspect that civilization is not a fixed heritage, handed down from the past, but rather an adaptive mechanisms that permit it to be both a historically determined and continuously renewed in a creative way. 1.7 REFERENCES Embree, A.Thomas. (1989). Imagining India. Oxford University Press. Chapter 1 Brahaminical Ideology and Regional Identities. Pp.9-27. Cohn, Bernard. (1971). India: The Social Anthropology of a Civilization. Oxford University Press. Chapters 1,3, 5 & 8 (1-7, 24-31, 51-59,79-97) Dube, S. C. (1990). Indian Society. New Delhi: National Book Trust. Chapters 1 and 2 (1-46) 1.8 SPECIMEN ANSWERS TO CHECK YOUR PROGRESS Check Your Progress 1 i) a) On the ways /processes through which the content of the civilization is transmitted and communicated through different levels of society. b) McKim Marriott and Robert Redfield. c) Comparisons with other societies and cultures which display similarity. ii) The cataloguing approach entails listing out statistically measurable traits and institutions that are essentially Indian. Unlike the cataloguing approach the cultural essence approach involves focusing on non-quantifiable or qualitative principles particular to India. For example, principles like universal brotherhood, respect for spiritual and divine. Check Your Progress 2 i) a) The zones of relative isolation. b) Basins, plains and deltas. c) Route zone. d) Mosaics rather than having distinctive culture and social structure. Check Your Progress 3 i) a) Great tradition of India in terms of the hierarchy of varna order. b) Past associations and hostilities. c) The national emblem and national anthem. 20 Check Your Progress 4 Civilization and Culture i) The Brahmanical ideology and the two external intrusions—Islamic and European have been central factors contributing to the unity of Indian civilization. ii) The Brahmanical ideology represents a uniform and coherent set of statements in the classical texts and inheritance from historical experiences pertaining to philosophy of life and world-view. It provides meaning to the lives of majority of Indian population and hence, may be regarded as the significant force contributing to the unity of Indian civilization. The notions like karma and reincarnation, concept of dharma, and a sense of a hierarchical social order with respect for Brahmans and rituals are significant contents of the Brahmanic ideology. iii) In Embree’s opinion both the Brahmanical ideology and the two external intrusions have been significant in restricting the emergence of nation-states and countering the growth of regionalism in India. This is unique from the European experience. In Europe there are around 25 nation-states. Unlike the European Church, the Brahmanical tradition placed the ruler or the king at the centre of universal order, without stressing on the criteria of territorial sovereignty. Further, the intrusion of Islamic and European civilizations had an all encompassing effect on India, destroying the scope and possibility for different regions to political independence. 21 Ideas of India UNIT 2 INDIA AS COLONY* Structure 2.0 Objectives 2.1 Introduction 2.2 Indian Society in the Colonial Period 2.3 Perspectives on India during Colonial Period 2.3.1 Indological View of India 2.3.2 Colonial View of India 2.3.3 Nationalist View of India 2.4 Let Us Sum Up 2.5 References 2.6 Specimen Answers to Check Your Progress 2.0 OBJECTIVES After going through this unit, you would be able to: discuss colonialism and its effects on Indian society; explain the role of colonialism in the emergence of Indian society from fragmented principalities to a unified nation; and describe the ‘idea of India’ as imagined by Indologists, colonialists and nationalists. 2.1 INTRODUCTION In the previous unit, we discussed the Indian civilization and culture. Indian civilization is one of the oldest and in India’s historical journey colonialism is an important turning point which introduced western modernisation in Indian society. India had a rich tradition of thoughts and practices on society and culture which was substantially transformed under the influence of western philosophy, culture and practices during the colonial period. One of these changes is the shift from agriculture to industry that came during the period of colonisation and brought large scale changes in political, economic and social spheres. European travelers had been visiting India since long and their accounts describe Indian society in glowing terms. When Europeans came to India, India’s economy was one of the wealthiest. For the Europeans, ruling India was at a different level as compared to other colonies of Asia and Africa. As Cohn points out: ‘in the 18th century India, there was settled agriculture, there was a large variety of craft production; There existed institution of kingship, partially written legal system, record keeping, taxation based on regular assessment, major military force, political and economic professions; like clerks, tax officials, bankers, judges, traders, etc. A complex socio-religious system was practiced based on sacred texts amongst both Hindu and Muslim communities with a range and a hierarchy of priests and scholars of religion.’(1987:137). 22 *Contributed by Uzma Azhar, Independent Scholar In the following section we shall discuss the nature of Indian society during India as Colony colonial time. In the Section 2.3 we take a look at how ‘India’ was perceived by Indologists, colonialists and nationalists. 2.2 INDIAN SOCIETY IN THE COLONIAL PERIOD Let us now discuss how Indian society was under the British colonial rule. The period of Enlightenment, the scientific and commercial revolutions, which spanned the period between the 14th and 18th centuries, the French Revolution of 1789, and the Industrial Revolution dealt a deadly blow to the age-old feudal system of monarchy and Church in Europe. The mass production of goods which was an outcome of industrial revolution, created a need for raw materials that drove the European countries in search of markets and colonies around the world. Many seafaring European countries set sail in search of riches and territories to colonise. The Dutch, Portuguese, French, and the English set up trading posts in India in the 17th century. The weakening of the Moghal Empire and many unstable Indian states made it easy for the British to establish their rule. It was after the Revolt of 1857, that the East India Company was dissolved in 1858 and India came formally and directly under the rule of the British Crown. By the mid 19th century British had control over much of the subcontinent. British rule over India lasted around two hundred years including the rule by the East India Company that had come as traders. The British rule and colonisation of India brought substantial changes in Indian society. We take a synoptic view of some of the changes: As the British plundered India by taking away its riches and used it as a market for its goods, economy suffered badly and poverty increased. Indian handicraft industry was ruined as they could not match the machine produced goods of Britain. Agriculture based economy went through many changes. Cash crops were introduced and revenue on land was standardised for the colonial masters. India also saw severe famines where millions lost their lives, however, modern medicine and healthcare was also introduced by the British. Modern Rule of Law in the form of a new Penal Code was introduced by the British. New codes of criminal and civil procedure, mostly based on English law were also established. This meant equality in the eyes of law and no discrimination (in theory) on the basis of caste, region, religion or gender. Many social reforms became possible with legal jurisdictions; like Abolition of Sati, raising of marriageable age, education for women, etc. These were led by some of the Indians like Raja Rammohun Roy, Ishwar Chand Vidyasagar and others. Modern education was launched as a policy advocated by Lord Macaulay, first put forth in 1835. English as a medium of instruction replaced languages like Sanskrit, Persian in North India and many schools and universities were opened to impart modern education across India to employ Indians in middle and low level, mostly clerical jobs. 23 Ideas of India Modern means of transportation and communication (telegraph network) were established. In 1909, Indian railway lines were laid. The railways network established by the British is one of the largest railway network in the world. Modern industries were introduced which led to new kind of occupations and rise of a new professional middle class in India bringing in changes in the caste system, in terms of occupation and status. Industrialisation also led to urbanisation, rise of modern cities across India. The nationalist movement which emerged due to the exploitative rule of the British, influence of modern ideas and education, under the guidance of leaders like Mahatma Gandhi, B.G. Tilak, Pandit Nehru and many others led India to its freedom. Check Your Progress 1 i) What is colonialism?..................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................... ii) Mention two effects of colonialism on Indian society...................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................... 2.3 PERSPECTIVES ON INDIA DURING COLONIAL PERIOD Different perspectives have been employed to analyse and interpret Indian culture and society. In this section, we will be looking at Indological, colonial and nationalist views of Indian society in some detail. 2.3.1 Indological View of India The need to govern people of various ethnic groups and different cultures created the urgency in the European rulers to study the life and cultures of the ruled. Bernard Cohn (1968) argues that the British Orientalists’ study of Indian languages was important to the colonial project of control and command. The college at Fort Williams in Calcutta was established with the specific goal of training young administrative officers in Sanskrit and other Indian languages and also culture. 24 In the post Battle of Plassey period (1757 onwards) we find growing knowledge India as Colony of Persian, Sanskrit and vernacular texts among the British administrators that enabled a comprehensive analysis of the society and culture of India. The depth and range of India’s history, philosophy and religion came to be known through the translations that were now being attempted by early scholars. Alexander Dow, the first to translate the Persian history of India and arriving at the understanding of Hinduism also realised the limitations of not referring to the original texts of Hinduism written in Sanskrit. Interestingly enough, in the process of giving importance to the text as the main source of knowledge about Indian society and culture, little attention was paid on the experienced reality. Thus a textual or Brahmanical version of Indian society was constructed that greatly neglected the way the masses lived. The Indological view 18th century and onwards gave a more systematic account and provided some concepts, theories and framework that the scholars claimed to have drawn from their study of Indian civilization. The scholars’ approach and their understanding of Indian society and its structure’ was based largely on their study of classical Sanskritic texts and literature. The School of Indology drew attention to the presence of a traditional, Sanskritic and higher civilization that demonstrates a semblance of ‘oneness’. However, its fault lies in assuming that India has a homogenous population thereby refusing to accept the lower or popular level of the civilization. This ‘unity’ of India that Indologists talked about did not take into account local, regional and social diversities. Following are some of the assumptions that Indologists made about India as a geographical entity and as a civilization: India had a glorious past and to understand it one must go back to the sacred books that were written during the ancient times. Both the philosophical and the cultural traditions of India are rooted in these texts. These ancient books reveal the real ideas of the Indian culture and society. One must understand these books to chart out the future development of India. Institutions should be set up to encourage the study of ancient Indian texts and teach Sanskrit and Persian literature and poetry. The Indologists stressed on the spiritual aspect of Indian civilization and largely overlooked the study of material culture. Hence, they arrived at a more unitary definition of Hinduism, that did not account for numerous diversities. Secondly, it led to a fixed view of Indian society with no regional variation let alone historical changes over time. What followed is an unquestionable acceptance of authority of texts and prescriptive behavior rather than the actual behavior and customs being practiced by the people. Hence Indian society came to be understood as a system of rules and social order that was more static. In the 18th century there were many who subscribed to this Indological or Orientalists view of India. Works of Max Mueller, William Jones, Henry Maine and later Henry Thomas Colebrooke, Alexander Dow, Alexander Cunningham had an influence in shaping the subsequent writings on India. 25 Ideas of India Box 1: Sir William Jones (1675-1749) William Jones was born in London and came to Calcutta in 1673. He established the Asiatic Society of Bengal in 1684, which was devoted to studying Indian culture and society. Over the next few years of his life in India he immersed himself in studying all aspects of Indian society. One could say that he is responsible for launching of the modern study of Indian subcontinent, an area which was neglected in European scholarship. He produced an array of writings on law, music, literature, botany and geography of India. And made the first English translation of several works, which included Manu Smriti. (Image credit: By Joshua Reynolds; Originally from sv.wikipedia; Public Domain, https:// commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?curid=379007) The Indological writings dealing with the Indian philosophy, art, and culture are reflected in the works of Indian scholars like A.K. Coomarswamy, Radhakamal Mukerjee, D.P. Mukerji, G.S. Ghurye, Louis Dumont and others. Even within sociology many of the founding fathers of Indian Sociology were also influenced by Indology, like B.N. Seal, S.V. Ketkar, B.K. Sarkar, G.S. Ghurye and Louis Dumont among others. Ghurye, although a trained anthropologist under W.H.R. Rivers, turned routinely to classical texts for understanding all manners of contemporary phenomena – costume, architecture, sexuality, urbanism, family and kinship, Indian tribal cultures, the caste system, ritual and religion. His colleagues and students like Irawati Karve and K.M. Kapadia also continued to do so. Ghurye’s method has often been later referred to as indigenous Indology, more influenced by the writings of Indologists of Bhandarkar Oriental Research Institute (Mumbai) rather than the British writings established by Sir William Jones or Max Muller. Dumont’s Indological bias is more apparent in his thesis about varna and caste where he assumes unity of Indian civilization. The work, Homo Hierarchicus is based on the fixed view of four-varna theory of caste which sees it as an all-inclusive category and therefore Indian society as basically based on the principle of hierarchy, where everyone is ranked on the basis of their birth. He further assumed that the structure of caste is the result of the ideology of principle of purity and pollution – a fixed and unified set of ideas and values which do not change. Louis Dumont imagined a modern Western society which – unlike India – aspires to rationality and was essentially individualist compared to the collectivist or group/community-based identities in India (Dumont 1972). Hence in many ways he followed the Indologists by going back to the idea of a European-Indian divide, the West and the East as typically opposite. Sociologist A.R. Desai critiques those viewing Indian society from the lens of culture and providing a textual view as being far removed from the real India with its inequalities, diversities, dialectics and exploitations. 26 India as Colony Check Your Progress 2 i) What is an Indological view?..................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................... ii) Mention two basic assumptions of Indologists...................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................... 2.3.2 Colonial View of India Let us now look at the colonialist view of Indian society. The aim of the British colonial interest in studying the traditional Indian society proved useful in laying the foundation for further studies of Indian society. The emphasis of the studies was on how to govern India better. After the arrival of the British, knowledge of Indian society began to develop very rapidly from 1760 onwards. They needed to study Indian languages in order to understand India better. The view of the British Colonialists can be sub-divided into a) Missionaries. It was N. B.Halhead who presented first compilation of Hindu Dharamshastra (1776) William Jones, Colebrook were other scholars who did notable work on India) and b) Administrative view, from H.H. Risley under whom first census of India (1872) took place to J.H. Hutton, who was the last census commissioner, the collected census data helped later scholars like, Morgan, McLennon, Lubbock, Tylor, Starcke and Frazer. a) Missionaries In India : Early 19th century saw considerable literature by missionaries on Indian society scholars like Claudius Buchanan, William Carey, William Ward and Sir John Shore condemned Hinduism and saw hope in the spread of Christianity. Missionaries like Abbe Dubois understood caste as a Varna system which was seen as an impediment to conversion to Christianity (Dirks, 2001). This view developed through the writings of early Evangelicals (Protestants who believed in spreading the teachings of Christianity through conversion by persuasion) in the late eighteenth century. They viewed Indian society as being essentially undignified as compared to the British society and the only way to improve was by infusing it with British ways and by British rule. Interestingly though in their search for the proof of a generally corrupting Hindu society, these missionaries made major contributions to the empirical study of the Indian society. Moreover, the 27 Ideas of India need for translation of Bible into vernaculars led to socio-linguistic study of Indian languages. This in turn gave rise to more systematic and written accounts of the lived realities of the different caste and occupational groups. The missionaries also helped in the spread of modern education in different parts of India, went to work in the remotest areas (amongst tribals in the forests and other backward communities) and worked with zeal and fervor for the weak and the poor. Orientalists and missionaries accepted and agreed (Cohn, 1968) that religious ideas and practices underlay all social structure. They also were of the opinion that Brahmans were the maintainers of the sacred traditions through their control of the knowledge of the sacred texts. The orientalist also agreed with Brahmanical theory of the four Varnas. While the Orientalists had immense admiration of an ancient Indian civilization and were deeply aggrieved by the fall of Indian society from that ideal, the missionaries were of the view that there was no glorious past and it has always been filled with absurdities. b) The Administrative View: The interpretation of Indian society by the administrators, trained in British universities and indoctrinated by practical scientific rationalism were more realistic and were largely based on facts on the ground. Their purpose was to understand India in order to exploit its resources. The administrators sought to develop structures and institutions that would help them in organising their actions (rules) related to the life of the native locals of India along with the enormous complexities characterising the Indian society. British scholarly administrators posted in different parts of India, for example, Risley, Dalton and O’Malley in East India, Crooks in Northern India, wrote detailed accounts on the tribes and castes of India, which even today provide the basic information about the life and culture of the people of the respective regions. The purpose of these studies was to familiarise the government officials and private persons with classified descriptions about castes and tribes in India with a view to ensuring effective colonial administration. But these early works proved insufficient as East India Company’s territory rapidly increased and the British became aware of the baffling variety of peoples, histories, political forms, systems of land tenure and religious practices. They realised that the relatively haphazard reporting of sociological information must be more systematised and supported field surveys whose goal was acquisition of better and more accurate information. Box 2: Caste and Census The exercise of census undertaken by the British also shaped and laid stress on the system of caste in India. Nicholas Dirks in his book, Caste of the Mind: Colonialism and the Making of Modern India (2001) argues that before the British arrived, the Indian society was highly fragmented into communal groupings and it was the Portuguese who first suggested caste as a social formation. The British took these ideas further to help them get a sense of order. Dirks shows how caste was shaped by the active participation of British and Indians which included administrators, 28 Brahmins, caste claimants, information gatherers, among others. The first census of 1872 under Lord Mayo was mainly an exercise where open India as Colony ended questions were asked, and the categories of religion, caste and race were used. Other than caste, the administrative idea of India was based on the category of ‘Village’. The perspective developed and forwarded was that India was primarily composed of villages. Charles Metcalfe, described Indians as living in “village communities” which “are (like) Little Republics (self-governed units), having nearly everything they want within themselves, and almost independent of any foreign relations” (Cohn 1971 reprint 2000: 86). The villages therefore came to be seen as self-sufficient units both economically and politically. However, villages were always a part of a larger sub-system, paying taxes to the rulers, socially interconnected through marriage relations, market fairs and social and economic inter-relations with others (see unit 4 for a more detailed discussion on Village India). The ‘caste’ and the ‘village’ view combined together helped the British rulers frame policy, revenue laws, created the class of zamindars and also forced commercial agricultural practices. 2.3.3 Nationalist View of India After the Indological and colonial view, let us now look at the nationalist view of India. Before British came to India, it was divided into various small states, principalities and dynasties. Due to its diversity in terms of religion, culture, language, and region it was widely believed that India cannot form a nation as it did not have a common culture, language or a common history, rather it had too many diversities. While there was a semblance of subcontinental identity as a nation the nation-state was not in place. It was only after independence from the British that a full- fledged Indian state emerged. There were several aspects to the colonial regime which helped shape India’s nationhood. Let us look at some of these aspects and factors that went into bring the idea of nation to a fruition: 1) The British brought various diverse sections of Indian society under a singular administrative purview as well as introduced various modern institutions such as bureaucracy, western education, law, modes of communication, printing press etc. These institutions and establishments helped the colonial power to exploit the Indian people as well as their natural resources; conversely it also brought the diverse people of India into singular framework of reference. 2) The exploitative colonial system under the British gave rise to anti-colonial movements. The leaders of this movement left no stone unturned to free themselves from the colonial yoke and establish their own rule in free India. The formation of the Indian National Congress in 1885 accelerated the movement and mobilised people of various regions to bring unity. 3) The founders of the modern Indian Nation created symbols to bind those diversities such as, common flag, national song/anthem, etc. Thus despite the diversities a common sentiment was created among the diverse sections, widely categorised as ‘unity in diversity’ factors. However, different freedom 29 Ideas of India fighters like Gandhi, Nehru, Tilak, Patel and others added new aspects in nationalist movement of India such as non-violence, non-cooperation, civil disobedience movement etc. to accelerate the movement. 4) In the context of Indian nationalism as opposed to European model of nationalism, anti-colonial movement also played a big role. Many scholars argue that the freedom struggle of India was more anti-colonial than national. The struggle brought all the sections of society on a single platform against the British. A R. Desai, D.D. Kosambi, Partha Chatterjee etc. have presented new dimensions to understand Indian nationalism and have looked at factors which helped in creation of ‘Indian nationhood’. Desai (1948) has analysed the fundamental economic transformation of Indian society during colonial period. He viewed that the economic transformation was one of the important material pre-requisites for uniting the diverse population of the region. At the same time he also addressed the role of other factors such as modern transport, new education, press, and others, in contributing towards the unification of the Indian people and in engendering a nationalist consciousness among them. Bringing examples from colonial Bengal to analyse Indian nationalism Partha Chatterjee(1993) gave the examples of language, culture, drama, schools, family, etc. and their role in nation formation. Box 3: Nehru on India Sometimes as I reached a gathering, a great roar of welcome would greet me: Bharat Mata ki Jai — ‘Victory to Mother India.’ I would ask them unexpectedly what they meant by that cry, who was this Bharat Mata, Mother India, whose victory they wanted? My question would amuse them and surprise them, and then, not knowing exactly what to answer, they would look at each other and at me. I persisted in my questioning. At last a vigorous Jat, wedded to the soil from immemorial generations, would say that it was the dharti, the good earth of India that they meant. What earth? Their particular village patch,or all the patches in the district or province, or in the whole of India? And so question and answer went on, till they would ask me impatiently to tell them all about it. I would endeavour to do so and explain that India was all this that they had thought, but it was much more. The mountains and the rivers of India, and the forests and the broad fields, which gave us food, were all dear to us, but what counted ultimately were the people of India, people like them and me, who were spread out all over this vast land. Bharat Mata, Mother India, was essentially these millions of people, and victory to her meant victory to these people. You are parts of this Bharat Mata, I told them, you are in a manner yourselves Bharat Mata, and as this idea slowly soaked into their brains, their eyes would light up as if they had made a great discovery. Jawaharlal Nehru in Discovery of India (pg.59) On the other hand V. D. Savarkar, a freedom fighter and a writer, looked to India’s civilisational ancestry, geographical entity, common ethos and cultural practices in trying to come up with an idea of India. He believed that “The most 30 important factor that contributes to the cohesion, strength and the sense of unity India as Colony of the people is that they should possess an internally well-connected and externally well demarcated ‘local habitation’, and a ‘name’ that could, by its very mention, rouse the cherished image of their motherland as well as the loved memories of their past. We are happily blessed with both these important requisite for a strong and united nation” (Savarkar 2009:82). The two requisites he has in mind are geographical identity and common civilizational culture. Savarkar says that this land is distinct in that it is naturally defined by geographical boundaries. As for common civilizational core Savarkar looks to the word Hindu and its derivative ‘Hindutva’ in trying to come to an understanding of its cultural essence. The Hindus have more similarities than dissimilarities and a culture that is distinctly different from others, he argues. He argues, therefore, that they should be recognised as cultural unit. “A Hindu is then one who feels attachment to the land that extends from Sindhu… as the land of his forefathers-as his fatherland;…. and which assimilating all that was incorporated and ennobling all that was assimilated has grown into and come to be known as the Hindu people; and who, as a consequence of the forgoing attributes, has inherited and claims as his represented in a common history, common heroes, a common literature, common art, a common law and a common jurisprudence, common fairs and festivals, rites and rituals, ceremonies and sacraments” (Savarkar 2009:100). Rabindranath Tagore while being a patriot, makes distinction between patriotism and nationalism; Patriotism means love for one’s country — a sense of territoriality, ‘a certain emotional attachment to place of one’s birth, the place where you have grown up, place which frames your earliest memories. Tagore differentiates patiotism from nationalism. According to him nationalism is an ideology wich is based on the idea of a nation. ‘Tagore believed that India was a country of communities. It was not a country of a nation. So trying to build a nation in India was like an attempt to build a navy in Switzerland.’ ( www.sahapedia.org) The idea of what constitutes Indian ‘nation’ has been discussed here, different view points have been given without going too much into the details and an analysis of it. These differing view points should indicate to you that the idea of nation is a construction: where tradition, language, culture, civilization history, and its people have all been held up to define what constitutes a nation. Check Your Progress 3 i) What was the purpose of Colonialist view and how did it help the British in ruling over India?....................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................... 31 Ideas of India ii) What was the administrative view of India?..................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................... iii) What were the factors that helped in formation of Indian nation-state? Mention two....................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................... 2.4 LET US SUM UP Colonialism or imperialist rule by the British changed Indian society in various ways. The interest of the British rulers to control and govern India better gave rise to the studies of Indian society. In this unit, we have observed in detail how ‘India’ was imagined and viewed by Indologists, colonialists and nationalists. The Indological view, 18th century onwards gave a more systematic account and provided concepts, theories and framework that the scholars claimed to have emerged from their study of Indian civilization based on their study of classical Sanskrit texts and literature. Colonial view and the studies helped the British rulers frame policy, revenue laws, created class of zamindars and also forced commercial agricultural practices. The views and studies by the missionaries and administrators also proved useful in laying the foundation for further studies of Indian society. In the section on nationalist view we explored the major factors that helped in the creation of ‘nation’. A.R. Desai was of the view that the economic transformation was one of the important material pre-requisites for uniting the diverse population of the region, along with factors like modern transport, new education, press, etc. For Partha Chatterjee language, culture, drama, schools, family, women etc. played a role in formation of the Indian nation state. 2.5 REFERENCES Cohn, Bernard. (1968, reprinted 2009) The Study of Indian Society and Culture in Cohn and Singer (ed.) Structure and Change in Indian Society. Rawat Publications, New Delhi. 32 Chatterjee, P. (1993). The Nation and its Fragments: Colonial and Postcolonial India as Colony Histories (Vol. 11). Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press. Cohn, Bernard. (1971, reprint 2000). India: The Social Anthropology of a Civilization. OUP Cohn, Bernard. (1998, reprint 1990). An anthropologist among the historians and Other Essays. OUP. Dasgupta, B. (2003). The Colonial Political Perspective. Social Scientist, 27-56. Desai, A. R. (2005). Social Background Of Indian Nationalism (6Th-Edn). Popular Prakashan. Dirks, N. B. (2011). Castes of mind: Colonialism and the Making of Modern India. Princeton University Press. Dumont, L and Pocock, D. (1957). For a sociology of India, Contributions to Indian Sociology, 1, pp 7-22 Inden, Ronald. (1990). Imagining India. Basil Blackwell Ltd, Cambridge, Mass. Nehru, J. (2008). Discovery of India. OUP. IGNOU, Course material. (2005). Sociology in India, Book-1 MSO 004. Indira Gandhi National Open University School of Social Sciences, New Delhi (http:/ /egyankosh.ac.in/bitstream/123456789/21039/1/Unit-1.pdf accessed on 2nd Sept 2018 ) Vidyarthi, L. P.(1976) Rise of Anthropology in India. Concept Publishing Company, Delhi Savarkar V.D., (2009). Hindutva. Hindi Sahitya Sadan, New Delhi. Nandy, Ashish, (2018 ) https://www.sahapedia.org/tagore-nationalism- conversation-prof-ashis-nandy accessed on 12th October, 2018 2.6 SPECIMEN ANSWERS TO CHECK YOUR PROGRESS Check Your Progress 1 i) Colonialism is a form of territorial expansion through imperialism where a colonial country exerts political, economic and social control over the colonized nation, leading to gain in wealth for the colonial country and impoverishment and poverty for the colonized. ii) Effects of colonialism: Modern Law in the form of a new penal code was introduced by the British. New codes of criminal and civil procedure, mostly based on English law were also established. This meant equality in the eyes of law and no discrimination (in theory) on the basis of caste, region, religion or gender. 33 Ideas of India Many social reforms became possible with legal jurisdictions, like abolishing Sati, raising the marriageable age, etc. led by Indians like Raja Ram Mohan Roy, Ishwar Chand Vidyasagar and others. Check Your Progress 2 i) The Indological view gave a more systematic account and provided some concepts, theories and framework that the scholars claimed to have emerged from their study of Indian civilization based on their study of classical Sanskrit texts and literature. ii) Basic assumptions of the Indologists: India had a glorious past and to understand it one must go back to the sacred books that were written during the ancient times. Both the philosophical and the cultural traditions of India are rooted in these texts. These ancient books reveal the real ideas of the Indian culture and society. One must understand these books to chart out the future development of India. Check Your Progress 3 i) The emphasis of the Colonialist studies was on how to govern India better. The studies helped the British rulers frame policies, revenue laws, created class of zamindars and also forced commercial agricultural practices. ii) The interpretation of Indian society by the administrators, trained in British universities and guided by practical scientific rationalism. Their purpose was to understand India in order to exploit its resources. The administrators sought to develop categories that would help them in ordering their ideas and actions relating to the life of the natives of India avoiding the enormous complexities characterising it. iii) Factors which helped India’s ‘nation-state’ a) The British brought those various segments under a singular administrative purview as well as introduced various modern institutions such as bureaucracy, western education, law, modes of communication, printing press etc. Such establishments while bringing changes to Indian society conversely helped the colonial power to exploit the Indian people as well as other natural resources. b) The rise of anti-colonial movement, the then leadership left no stone unturned to establish India as a nation. After the formation of the Indian National Congress in 1885, it accelerated the movement and mobilised people of various regions to bring unity. 34 India as Colony UNIT 3 NATION, STATE AND SOCIETY* Structure 3.0 Objectives 3.1 Introduction 3.2 Stateless Society in India 3.3 Transition from Stateless to State Society in India 3.4 Nation, State and Society in Colonial India 3.4.1 Political Unification 3.4.2 Legal Unification 3.4.3 Economic Unification 3.5 Anti-colonial Movements and the Idea of the Nation 3.6 Let Us Sum Up 3.7 References 3.8 Specimen Answer to Check Your Progress 3.0 OBJECTIVES After reading this unit, you will be able to: explain the concept of nation, nation-state and nationalism; discuss the nature of stateless societies in India; and, discuss the role of British colonialism and anti-colonial struggles in the birth of the Indian nation. 3.1 INTRODUCTION Nation, state and society may appear to you as three different conceptual categories, but in this unit we are going to discuss their relationship in the Indian societal context. Human society has existed for a long time, but emergence of state and nation has changed the way societies lived and progressed. Historically the emergence of state societies was a unique and revolutionary phenomenon. There were stateless societies at some point of time in

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