Biology Final Study Guide PDF

History of the Earth/Radiometric Data & Half-Life Relative vs. Absolute Dating ○ Relative dating dates objects based on their location in the same rock layer as index fossils. Absolute dating is using the rate of decay of radioactive isotopes to determine...

History of the Earth/Radiometric Data & Half-Life Relative vs. Absolute Dating ○ Relative dating dates objects based on their location in the same rock layer as index fossils. Absolute dating is using the rate of decay of radioactive isotopes to determine the age of a specimen, generally more accurate. How to calculate Half-Life ○ The half-life equals the time it takes to go from the whole element mass to half of the original mass. Analyzing half-life on a graph: ○ Know and understand the K-T boundary and how it relates to Dinosaur Extinction - including the Asteroid Impact Hypothesis ○ The K/T boundary is a layer in the earth marked by high iridium content. This layer proves that there was a meteor that hit the earth. ○ The asteroid impact hypothesis is that an asteroid striking the earth caused the extinction of the dinosaurs. The impact was in the Chicxulub crater in the Yucatan peninsula. Understand how fossils form in sedimentary rock ○ When an organism dies in water or on land, layers of sediment are deposited over it. The sediment thickens and protects the dead organism. After the organic material decays other minerals fill in the space left. Know what an Index Fossil is and how it provides information on the relative age of other fossils ○ An Index fossil is the fossil of an organism that was only found during a specific time period. When this fossil is found in the same layer as a different organism that tells us the organism was found during that specific time period and is that old. Carbon Cycling Through Earth Spheres: (Energy is transferred or transformed, and Matter cycles)  Name 4 ways carbon dioxide is released into Earth’s spheres. Name all 4 spheres ○ Carbon dioxide is released into the atmosphere during cellular respiration, Carbon dioxide is released into the hydrosphere during the air sea carbon exchange. Carbon dioxide is put into the biosphere during photosynthesis. Carbon dioxide is released into the geosphere during acid rain. How does the release of Carbon dioxide into the atmosphere affect the atmospheric temperature? ○ Carbon dioxide is a greenhouse gas, trapping heat within the atmosphere and contributing to a warmer climate + Global Warming. Identify & explain the impact of Carbon being released into the atmosphere. ○ When excess carbon dioxide is released into the atmosphere by human activities, it throws off the natural imbalance of the carbon cycle. This causes the atmosphere to retain too much carbon leading to global warming. Be able to analyze the gigatons of CO2 from a picture/diagram, and how carbon moves between spheres based on the measurements in gigatons. How does the continued burning of fossil fuels affect the Earth’s temperature? ○ Excess carbon dioxide enters the atmosphere that cannot be offset by other carbon sinks, causing more greenhouse gases to be released in the atmosphere and contributing to global warming. Understand Ocean Acidification, its cause, and its effect (including pH & the pH scale) ○ Ocean acidification is caused by the dissolution of carbon dioxide into water, creating carbonic acid. This causes the shells of soft shelled animals to be dissolved in the acidic acid. Understand and be able to determine whether an Earth sphere is a carbon source or a carbon sink. ○ Sources output more carbon dioxide into the system than it takes in. Sinks take and store carbon dioxide. Know and understand that Photosynthesis and storing carbon dioxide in the deep ocean help remove carbon dioxide from the atmosphere. ○ Plants store more carbon than they give off and so does the ocean, storing the carbon in deep ocean sediments. Be able to explain the effect of increased CO2 absorbed into our oceans, making the oceans more acidic (lower pH) ○ The increased pH of ocean water causes the shells of softcelled organisms to dissolve by carbonic acid.  Explain how decomposition moves carbon through Earth’s spheres. ○ The decomposition of organisms releases carbon dioxide into the atmosphere, which then inputs it into the hydrosphere and biosphere. The hydrosphere deposits the carbon dioxide into sediment. Energy: Understand the transfer of energy in a food chain and food web, how the transfer of energy can be disrupted, and what is the outcome (or effect). ○ Primary producers/autotrophs are the source of energy (those are things like grass and plants), then get eaten by (heterotrophs) herbivores who then get eaten by carnivores or omnivores. Through all of this they get energy from consuming the first source. Understand and be able to analyze data from an Energy pyramid (trophic levels) and a Biomass Pyramid. ○ Trophic level pyramid allows 10 percent of the energy to be transferred down to the next tier (Example: A pyramid with 5 levels starts with 100 at the bottom, and the top has 0.001%) Understand and be able to calculate energy transfer based on the 10% rule ○ Start with 100% then divided 10% off as many levels there are in the pyramid Know and understand the role of producers and consumers (including decomposers) in the transfer of energy. ○ Consumers are the animals and insects that feed on organisms from the previous trophic level to gain energy through cellular respiration. Producers are the source of energy, those are the plants. Decomposers turn organic waste into in-organic material such as soil that helps start the food web one again. Examples of decomposers are fungi and bacteria. Scavengers are animals that decompose dead organisms that were killed by other predators. Photosynthesis and Chemosynthesis: Know and understand that autotrophs can acquire their energy through photosynthesis (using light energy) or chemosynthesis (chemical energy) ○ Autotrophs use photosynthesis to create energy in their chloroplasts in the form of ATP. They take in carbon dioxide and water. Chemosynthesis uses chemical energy and takes in Carbon dioxide and water to create ATP Know the balanced chemical reaction for photosynthesis - IDENTIFY the inputs and outputs  ○ 6CO2 + 6H2O light energy-> C6H12O6+ 6O2 Understand the overall process of Photosynthesis - Light reaction and Calvin cycle ○ Chloroplasts take in light energy through photosynthetic pigments like chlorophyll. Energy is transferred to a reaction center by electron carriers like NADP+. Light dependent reactions happen when energy is captured by thylakoids. Turns ADP to ATP and NADP+ to NADPH. Water is split and oxygen is released. Hydrogen ions are also released. During light independent reactions aka the Calvin cycle produces glucose by combining Carbon dioxide and hydrogen. Know that photosynthesis occurs in the chloroplast (organelle). Understand that the greater the distance of the light source, the lower the rate of photosynthesis. Explain how carbon dioxide moves through Earth’s spheres as photosynthesis continues - how do plants absorb CO2? ○ Carbon dioxide is an input of photosynthesis which absorbs it through their stomata. Cellular respiration later outputs CO2 into the atmosphere. What is the primary source of oxygen for all living organisms? ○ Plants releasing O2 during photosynthesis Understand the role of the water cycle in photosynthesis - how does Water cycle through Earth's Spheres? ○ Photosynthesis needs water to get the oxygen and hydrogen required for glucose and NADPH. Water cycles through the spheres by being evaporated into the atmosphere, and then precipitated into the geosphere through groundwater and runoff, ending up in the hydrosphere. Precipitation also ends up in soil which plants take up into the biosphere. What happens to the plant's stomata (pores) on hot and dry days? ○ The stomata close up to prevent moisture loss Understand how light intensity affects the RATE of photosynthesis. ○ Higher light intensity, higher rate of photosynthesis. Cellular respiration: What is ATP, and how does it make ADP (why?) ○ Adenosine Tri-Phosphate. ADP is created when energy is released through the breaking of a phosphate group bond. Know the balanced chemical reaction for Cellular Respiration - IDENTIFY the inputs and outputs of photosynthesis and cellular respiration (reactants - INPUTS) products (OUTPUTS) ○ C6H12O6+6O2 -> 6CO2 +6H2O Understand the overall process of Cellular Respiration ○ Glycolysis breaks down 1 molecule of 6 carbon sugar into 2 molecules of 3 carbon pyruvic acid. Glycolysis needs 2 ATP  to start and produces 4. Net 2 ATP. NADH holds electrons and when in presence of oxygen they can be used to make ATP. Krebs cycle happens when pyruvic acid is broken down into carbon dioxide and aceteak coenzyme a. The CoA transfers the carbon into citric acid. Electron transport uses high energy electrons to make ATP. Why is Mitochondria called the POWERHOUSE of the cell (think energy) ○ Because it is where ATP or energy is produced. It contains ATP synthases. Know that Cellular Respiration occurs in the mitochondria (organelle) Where does our energy originally come from? ○ The sun. What is the usable energy formed to carry out life’s processes? ○ ATP How does The body release carbon dioxide? ○ Through exhaling What is the form of energy released during cellular respiration to help maintain body temperature? ○ thermal/heat energy Compare and contrast the process of photosynthesis to the process of cellular respiration. ○ Both produce ATP, but are essentially inverses. Carbon dioxide is taken in by plants during photosynthesis but expelled during cellular respiration. Glucose is formed during photosynthesis but broken down during cellular respiration. UNDERSTAND the cause and effect of ALCOHOLIC & LACTIC ACID fermentation ( why and what it produces) ○ Alcoholic fermentation is carried out by yeast, and pyruvic acid forms alcohol, carbon dioxide, and NAD+. NAD+ lets glycolysis continue without oxygen. Lactic acid fermentation is carried out by bacteria. They convert pyruvic acid into lactic acid and NAD+. We use it when our muscles don’t get enough energy. Cell Structure and Function:I’m too lazy to do this, going to just study my old notes Ur so real