BIOL 10 Midterm Study Guide Fall 2023 PDF

BIOL 10 MIDTERM STUDY GUIDE red font = among the more frequently missed questions on the exam Recognizing scientific research papers (see Lecture 1 Activity, Question 11 & the attributes of a scientific paper listed in bold font in Question 12) Experiments: dependent variable, independent varia...

BIOL 10 MIDTERM STUDY GUIDE red font = among the more frequently missed questions on the exam Recognizing scientific research papers (see Lecture 1 Activity, Question 11 & the attributes of a scientific paper listed in bold font in Question 12) Experiments: dependent variable, independent variable, treatments, control group, control variables (Lecture 1 slides; Lecture 1 Activity; Week 1 Lab) Characteristics of life (Lecture 2, Slides 4-6) How we categorize living organisms (Lecture 2, Slides 9-22; Lecture 2 Activity, Questions 4-8 & 12) o Compare the domains: ▪ Which are more closely related? Uni/multicellular? Organelles? Kingdoms? Where are they found? ▪ Prokaryotic vs. Eukaryotic cells: basic differences (Lecture 2, Slide 14) Phylogenetic trees (Lecture 2, Slides 31-41; Lecture 2 Activity, Questions 1-3) o Understand that phylogenetic trees are a timeline o Interpret level of relatedness between taxa in a phylogenetic tree ▪ Recall: Each node is a common ancestor of the taxa that stem from it. Closer relatives have a younger (more recent) common ancestor/node, higher up on the tree (if the tree is positioned horizontally, then “younger” nodes are more to the right). If several taxa share a common node with another taxon, then they are equally related to it. E.g.: Above, left: ★,  & ▲ are equally related to because the common ancestor of ★& is the same as the common ancestor of  & , and is also the same as the common ancestor of ▲ &. Using the same reasoning, convince yourself that in the diagram over on the right, ★, ▲ , & are all equally related to . Evolution o Evidence (Lecture 3, Slide 5; Lecture 3 Activity, Question 1) o Which types of selection select for >1 trait variant (vs. reduce trait variation)? (Lecture 3, Slides 7-10, 12; Lecture 3 Activity, Question 8) o What makes bottleneck effect & founder effect examples of genetic drift? (Lecture 3, Slides 13-14; Lecture 3 Activity, Questions 4 & 6) ▪ Do they affect small populations, large populations, or both? ▪ Do they result from the accumulated effects of selective pressures over many years, or from sudden events? ▪ Do they increase genetic variation (resulting in a population that’s good at adapting to sudden selective pressures, since there’s more chance that at least some individuals have traits that help them survive)? Or do they decrease genetic variation (resulting in a population with a lower chance of surviving sudden pressures)? o Paths to reproductive isolation & speciation (Lecture 4, Slides 7-8) ▪ Show critical thinking, make comparisons: which mode of speciation results from the founder effect? (Lecture 4, Slides 7-8) o Different Species Concepts (ways of defining a species) (Lecture 4 Slides 3, 10, 12-13; Lecture 4 Activity, Questions 1 & 2) ▪ Which species concepts are applicable to sexually reproducing species? To asexually reproducing species? o Adaptive Radiation: when does it occur? (Lecture 4, Slides 20-23; Lecture 4 Activity, Question 7) o How does antibiotic resistance develop (i.e., when does the trait for antibiotic resistance first appear)? (Lecture 3, Slide 4; Week 2 Lab) o What are the criteria for natural selection? (Lecture 2, Slide 29) ▪ VARIATION in HERITABLE TRAITS + DIFFERENTIAL FITNESS (differential reproductive success) during environmental PRESSURE o Relationship between natural selection & evolution: natural selection is the mechanism, evolution is the result.  Microscopes (Week 4 Lab) o ocular lens magnification (10x); the chronological order in which to use the 4x, 10x & 40x objective lenses; calculating total magnification; which focusing knob to use with which lens; how to make wet mounts Atoms (Lecture 5 slides; Lecture 5 Activity) o structure (Lecture 5, Slides 3-4; Lecture 5 Activity, Question 9) o know what element an atom is from, given how many protons it has & a periodic table (Lecture 5 Activity, Question 3) o know what element an uncharged atom is from, given how many electrons it has & a periodic table (Lecture 5 Activity, Question 3) o know which side (far left vs. far right) of a periodic table list metals & which side has mostly nonmetals (Lecture 5, Slides 27 & 31) o identify chemical bonds: ionic vs. non-polar covalent vs. polar covalent vs. hydrogen bonds (Lecture 5, Slides 18-20; Lecture 6, Slide 7) ▪ Between what atom types does each bond type form? (Note: hydrogen bonds form between molecules, not within molecules) Which elements are most abundant in living organisms’ bodies? Know: macromolecules are made of these elements (Lecture 6, Slides 19 & 21) Water molecules (Lecture 6 slides; Lecture 6 Activity, Questions 1-2) o Internal structure (atoms involved), basic shape (Lecture 6, Slides 3, 5, 17) o Partial charges (δ) within a water molecule (Lecture 6, Slides 5, 6, 17) o Net charge of a water molecule (Lecture 6, Slide 5) o Type of bond that forms between water molecules (Lecture 6, Slides 6, 7, 15, 17) o Type of bond that holds atoms within a water molecule together (Lecture 5, Slide 20; Lecture 6, Slides 3, 14, 17) o Why water molecules are “sticky” (Lecture 6, Slides 6-9) Macromolecules: examples, main functions, what they are made of (Lecture 6 slides; Lecture 6 Activity Questions 4, 9-18) o Building/breaking up macromolecules: monomers, dehydration synthesis, hydrolysis (Lecture 6 Slides 25-26; Lecture 6 Activity Q# 3) o How the attributes of proteins’ monomers (i.e., amino acids) affect protein shape (Lecture 6, Slides 31 & 36) o Enzymes (Week 3 Pre-Lab & questions at the end of the lab handout) Evidence for Endosymbiotic Theory (Lecture 7, Slide 28; Lecture 7 Activity, Question 4) o Mitochondria & chloroplasts have double-membranes; they resemble bacteria in size/shape/mode of replication & in that they have DNA Cell organelles & structures (Lecture 7 slides; Lecture 8 slides; Lecture 8 Activity (!)) o cell wall, plasma membrane, cytoplasm, cytosol, centrosome, centriole, cytoskeleton, microtubules, nucleus, ribosome, endoplasmic reticulum (rough ER, smooth ER), transport vesicles, Golgi apparatus, lysosome, chloroplast, mitochondrion, central vacuole ▪ their functions ▪ whether they occur in plant &/or animal cells ▪ recognize the structures/organelles visually in diagrams ▪ recognize prokaryotic vs. plant vs. animal cells visually in diagrams Plasma membranes o Structure (Lecture 9, Slides 5-7; Lecture 9 Activity, Questions 1-2) o Function of macromolecules in/attached to membranes (Lecture 9 Activity, Questions 3-7; membranes sustain homeostasis in cells) o Modes of membrane transport (Lecture 9 slides; Lecture 9 Activity, Questions 8-12; Week 5 Lab handout questions) ▪ Which ones require energy input & which ones don’t? (Lecture 9, Slides 21-23; Lecture 9 Activity, Question 12) ▪ Uncharged (hydrophobic) or very small charged/polar substances easily diffuse across membranes, down their concentration gradient (in the case of tiny water molecules, we call it “osmosis” instead of “diffusion”)… no energy input needed. osmosis: what happens to cells in isotonic vs hypotonic vs hypertonic extracellular solutions? (Week 5 Lab handout) ▪ Charged/polar (hydrophilic) substances like ions (charged atoms) can only diffuse across membranes through protein channels (“facilitated diffusion”). ▪ Any substances mentioned in the previous two points may undergo “active transport” through protein pumps (this requires energy input), if they need to move against their concentration gradient. ▪ Particularly large substances (e.g., viruses, bacteria) cross via endo-/exocytosis (forms of active transport, require energy) Putting topics covered so far into perspective: what is a building block of what? What could fit into what? (Lecture 7 Activity, Question 7) o Including size difference between prokaryotic & eukaryotic cell (recall the example of a bacteria vs human cheek cell in Lab 4) How cells get the energy they need to do work (ATP = energy currency) o Endergonic vs exergonic reactions (Lecture 10, Slides 10-16) o How is energy stored in ATP molecules? (Lecture 10, Slides 7, 8 &15; Lecture 10 Activity, Questions 2-4) ▪ ATP’s phosphate groups repel each other (since they have identical charges). So, bonding the phosphate groups requires energy input (e.g., compressing a spring). The energy input stays in ATP as potential energy. An exergonic reaction detaches a phosphate group & releases this energy (e.g., releasing a spring). The released energy powers a cell's work. (Analogy of how potential energy is released into energy that powers work: if you let go of a compressed spring, it may push & move an adjacent object, as it’s springing out.) o ATP (energy) production: Cellular Respiration (Lecture 10 slides; Lecture 10 Activity, Questions 5-15) ▪ Where do the 3 stages of Cellular Respiration (I.e., ATP production) occur? (Lecture 10, Slides 17 & 31) ▪ Starting material for Cellular Respiration (i.e., what molecule is used to begin Glycolysis)? (Lecture 10 Activity, Question 6) ▪ Citric Acid Cycle: what enters it (Acetyl CoA) & what’s produced (CO2, energy (ATP, GTP), electron carriers (NADH, FADH2)) ▪ Name the electron carriers that collect & bring electrons to the Electron Transport Chain (Lecture 10, Slides 19-20) ▪ Role of O2. (Lecture 10, Slides 33, 39-42, 45; Lecture 10 Activity, Questions 10-11) Without O2, cells make ATP via fermentation (= glycolysis, followed by pyruvate’s conversion into lactate or another product… see diagram below). In contrast, if O2 is present, glycolysis occurs, then pyruvate is made into Acetyl CoA, which then enters the Citric Acid Cycle, & Cellular Respiration proceeds. So, in both cases glycolysis occurs, but after that the steps differ. Fermentation occurs (makes ATP) in the cytoplasm, outside of a mitochondrion. FERMENTATION: