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Questions and Answers
What is the starting material used in Glycolysis during Cellular Respiration?
Which molecules enter the Citric Acid Cycle and which are produced from it?
What role does oxygen (O2) play in Cellular Respiration?
In the absence of oxygen, how do cells produce ATP?
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Which electron carriers are responsible for transporting electrons to the Electron Transport Chain?
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What is the result of increased genetic variation in a population?
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Which species concept is primarily applicable to sexually reproducing species?
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What denotes adaptive radiation?
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What factors contribute to the development of antibiotic resistance?
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Which criterion is NOT essential for natural selection to occur?
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How is total magnification calculated when using a microscope?
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Which type of bond forms between non-metal atoms with an equal sharing of electrons?
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In the periodic table, which side primarily contains metals?
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What type of bond holds the atoms within a water molecule together?
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What makes water molecules 'sticky'?
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Which of the following elements are most abundant in living organisms?
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What process combines monomers to form macromolecules?
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Which cell organelle is responsible for protein synthesis?
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Which statement is true about mitochondria?
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How do the attributes of monomers affect protein shape?
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Which of the following organelles is not found in prokaryotic cells?
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What is the primary function of a control group in an experiment?
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Which of the following statements correctly describes a eukaryotic cell?
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In a phylogenetic tree, what does each node represent?
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Which type of selection favors multiple trait variants rather than reducing variation?
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What is a characteristic of the bottleneck effect in genetic drift?
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Which of the following domains further categorizes organisms based on complexity?
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How do phylogenetic trees visually represent evolutionary relationships?
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What makes the founder effect a type of genetic drift?
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Which process requires energy input to move substances against their concentration gradient?
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What role do protein channels play in membrane transport?
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What happens to a cell when placed in a hypertonic solution?
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Which of the following accurately describes ATP?
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Which statement about diffusion is correct?
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Which of the following substances typically requires endocytosis for membrane transport?
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What are the charged phosphate groups in ATP responsible for?
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Which statement describes the difference between endergonic and exergonic reactions?
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Study Notes
Cellular Respiration
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Location: The three stages of cellular respiration (ATP production) occur in different locations within the cell:
- Glycolysis: Cytoplasm
- Citric Acid Cycle: Mitochondrial matrix
- Electron Transport Chain: Inner mitochondrial membrane
- Starting Material: Glucose is the molecule used to begin glycolysis.
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Citric Acid Cycle:
- Acetyl CoA enters the Citric Acid Cycle.
- Products:
- Carbon dioxide (CO2)
- Energy (ATP, GTP)
- Electron carriers (NADH, FADH2)
- Electron Carriers: NADH and FADH2 collect and bring electrons to the Electron Transport Chain.
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Role of Oxygen:
- Presence of Oxygen: Cells produce ATP through cellular respiration, with glycolysis followed by the conversion of pyruvate to Acetyl CoA, which then enters the Citric Acid Cycle.
- Absence of Oxygen: Cells make ATP through fermentation, where glycolysis is followed by the conversion of pyruvate into lactate or another product.
- Fermentation: Occurs in the cytoplasm, outside of a mitochondrion.
Domains of Life
- Three Domains: Bacteria, Archaea, and Eukarya.
- Relationship: Bacteria and Archaea are more closely related to each other than either is to Eukarya.
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Cellular Structure:
- Prokaryotes: Bacteria and Archaea are prokaryotes (lack membrane-bound organelles).
- Eukaryotes: Eukarya are eukaryotes (have membrane-bound organelles).
- Multicellularity: Most bacteria and archaea are unicellular, while Eukarya include both unicellular and multicellular organisms.
Phylogenetic Trees
- Timeline: Depict evolutionary relationships and serve as a timeline of evolutionary history.
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Level of Relatedness:
- Nodes: Represent common ancestors.
- Close Relatives: Share a more recent common ancestor (closer to the top or right of the tree).
- Equal Relatedness: Multiple taxa sharing a common ancestor with another taxon are equally related to it.
- Interpreting Trees: Closer to the root of the tree means more distant relationships, further from the root indicates closer relationships.
Natural Selection and Evolution
- Natural Selection: Mechanism that drives evolution.
- Evolution: Result of natural selection.
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Criteria for Natural Selection:
- Variation in heritable traits: Individuals within a population exhibit variations in their traits.
- Differential fitness: Individuals with certain traits have higher reproductive success than others in a given environment.
- Environmental pressure: The environment selects for certain traits that are advantageous for survival and reproduction.
Antibiotic Resistance
- Development: Traits for antibiotic resistance arise from mutations in bacterial DNA.
- Mechanism: The trait spreads through horizontal gene transfer (bacteria swapping genetic material) or by reproduction.
- Effect: Increases the prevalence of resistant bacteria.
Macromolecules
- Building Blocks: Monomers.
- Synthesis: Dehydration synthesis (removing water to form bonds).
- Breakdown: Hydrolysis (adding water to break bonds).
Proteins
- Monomers: Amino acids.
- Shape: Primary, secondary, tertiary, and quaternary structures are determined by amino acid sequence and interactions.
Endosymbiotic Theory
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Evidence:
- Mitochondria and chloroplasts have double membranes.
- They resemble bacteria in size, shape, mode of replication, and contain DNA.
- Explanation: Mitochondria and chloroplasts likely originated as free-living prokaryotic cells that were engulfed by eukaryotic cells.
Cell Organelles
- Cell Wall: Provides structural support and protection, found in plants, bacteria, and fungi.
- Plasma Membrane: Regulates the passage of substances into and out of the cell, found in all cells.
- Cytoplasm: Gel-like substance that fills the cell, found in all cells.
- Cytosol: Fluid component of the cytoplasm, found in all cells.
- Centrosome: Organizing center for microtubules, found in animal cells.
- Centriole: Involved in cell division, found in animal cells.
- Cytoskeleton: Network of protein fibers that provide cell structure and support, found in all cells.
- Microtubules: Hollow protein tubes involved in cell division, transport, and structure, found in all cells.
- Nucleus: Contains DNA and controls cell activities, found in eukaryotes.
- Ribosomes: Involved in protein synthesis, found in all cells.
- Endoplasmic Reticulum: Network of membranes involved in protein synthesis (rough ER) and lipid synthesis (smooth ER), found in eukaryotes.
- Transport Vesicles: Small membrane-bound sacs that transport molecules around the cell, found in eukaryotes.
- Golgi Apparatus: Modifies, sorts, and packages proteins and lipids, found in eukaryotes.
- Lysosomes: Break down waste materials and cellular debris, found in eukaryotes.
- Chloroplast: Site of photosynthesis, found in plants and algae.
- Mitochondrion: Site of cellular respiration, found in eukaryotes.
- Central Vacuole: Large storage organelle in plant cells, plays a role in water balance and support.
Plasma Membranes
- Structure: Phospholipid bilayer with embedded proteins.
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Function:
- Phospholipids: Form the barrier.
- Proteins: Involved in transport, communication, and recognition.
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Membrane Transport: Movement of molecules across the membrane.
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Passive Transport: Requires no energy input.
- Simple Diffusion: Movement of molecules down their concentration gradient (high to low).
- Facilitated Diffusion: Movement of molecules down their concentration gradient through protein channels.
- Osmosis: Movement of water molecules across a selectively permeable membrane.
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Active Transport: Requires energy input.
- Active Transport: Movement of molecules against their concentration gradient (low to high) through protein pumps.
- Endocytosis: Engulfing large particles or substances into the cell.
- Exocytosis: Releasing large particles or substances from the cell.
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Passive Transport: Requires no energy input.
ATP
- Energy Currency: Cells use ATP for energy to perform work.
- Structure: Adenosine triphosphate (ATP) has three phosphate groups.
- Energy Storage: Phosphate groups repel each other, storing potential energy.
- Energy Release: Breaking a phosphate bond releases energy, powering cellular processes.
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Exergonic and Endergonic Reactions:
- Exergonic: Reactions that release energy.
- Endergonic: Reactions that require energy input.
Microscopy
- Ocular Lens: Magnifies 10x.
- Objective Lenses: 4x, 10x, and 40x.
- Total Magnification: Ocular lens magnification multiplied by objective lens magnification.
- Focusing: Coarse adjustment knob used for low magnification, fine adjustment knob used for high magnification.
- Wet Mounts: Method for preparing specimens for viewing.
- Cell Size: Eukaryotic cells (like human cheek cells) are much larger than prokaryotic cells (like bacteria).
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