Biochemistry Report (Group 1) 2024 PDF

BIOCHEMISTRY (GROUP 1) 30 Zn Zinc 12 Mg agnesium M  REPORTERS Ablaza, Daniella Ashley Anota, Jasmin Rose Ereneo, Lyka Eu...

BIOCHEMISTRY (GROUP 1) 30 Zn Zinc 12 Mg agnesium M  REPORTERS Ablaza, Daniella Ashley Anota, Jasmin Rose Ereneo, Lyka Eunice Montemayor, Jaycee Panilagao, Crystalyn Victor, Kenneth John 30 Zn 12 Zinc Mg agnesium M CELL The fundamental building block of all life is the cell. STRUCTURE 1600, Robert Hooke A typical cell is one-fifth the size of the tiniest dot a sharp pencil can form on a piece of paper! 1600, is the basic living unit of all organisms. Cells are intricate living organisms About 60% of living cells are made of water. Range in size from 2 microns. projections of threadlike nerve cells roles vary: WBCs kill germs, Various cells produce hormones. An individual's whole cell makeup is descended from a single fertilized. CELL BIOCHEMICAL ORGANELLES SYSTEM The term "biochemical system" describes Various specialized tasks are carried out the intricate web of chemical processes, by cell organelles, which support the routes, and reactions that make up a organism's overall survival, development, living being. Numerous chemicals and reproduction, and equilibrium. substances, such as enzymes, hormones, neurotransmitters, nucleotides, and metabolic intermediates, are involved in biochemical systems. BIOCHEMICAL SYSTEM Metabolic Pathways Enzymes and Catalysis Energy Production Protein synthesis Signal Transduction Metabolism and Disease Genetics and Biochemical System Biochemical Analysis Techniques Biochemical Engineering Biochemical Adaptation METABOLIC PATHWAYS Catabolism and Within cells, there are a number of related Anabolism are the two chemical processes called metabolic main types of chemical pathways. These pathways are essential reactions that take place for supporting cellular functions like within cells and are growth, development, and energy referred to as Production as well as for sustaining life. Metabolism. ENZYME and CATALYSIS Due to their extreme specificity, enzymes are created to catalyze a particular reaction with a particular substrate or group of substrates. In order to speed up the reaction, enzymes bind to the substrate(s) and modify their conformation. As a result, an enzyme-substrate complex is created, which subsequently engages in a chemical reaction to produce the product(s). ENERGY PRODUCTION Energy production is the act of generating Energy that may be used by cells for various cellular operations. This energy is normally created in the form of ATP. Energy is created by a number of processes in living things, including cellular respiration, photosynthesis, and fermentation. PROTEIN SYNTHESIS The process through which cells produce Proteins, one of the most significant macromolecules in living creatures, is known as protein synthesis. Transcription and translation are the two basic procedures. SIGNAL TRANSDUCTION The process by which cells receive and react to messages from their surroundings or from other cells is known as signal transduction. It involves an intricate web of enzymes, receptors, and signaling molecules that transmit data both inside and outside of cells. METABOLISM and DISEASE The term metabolism refers to all of the chemical processes that take place in an organism to maintain life. These mechanisms are in charge of transforming food into energy, creating and repairing tissues, and controlling different cellular functions. However, disturbances in metabolism can result in a variety of illnesses and health issues.  GENETICS and BIOCHEMICAL SYSTEM Biochemical systems are interwoven. The chemical processes that an organism uses to stay alive are referred to as biochemical systems. Genetic data that is encoded in an organism's DNA sequences affects these processes. BIOCHEMICAL ANALYSIS Spectrophotometry, TECHNIQUE Chromatography, Electrophoresis, Mass Techniques for analyzing biological components Spectrometry, and Nuclear chemical makeup, structure, and functions, such as Magnetic Resonance proteins, nucleic acids, lipids, and carbohydrates, Spectroscopy are a few of the are referred to as biochemical analysis techniques. methods used frequently in biochemical analysis. BIOCHEMICAL ENGINEERING Biochemical systems are interwoven. The chemical processes that an organism uses to stay alive are referred to as biochemical systems. Genetic data that is encoded in an organism's DNA sequences affects these processes. BIOCHEMICAL ADAPTATION Biochemical adaptation is the process through which living things modify their physiological and metabolic functions in response to their surroundings. This adaptation can take place on a variety of time frames, from short-term adjustments made in response to current environmental conditions to long-term adjustments made through generations. CELL ORGANELLES Cell organelles are specialized structures within cells that perform distinct functions necessary for cell survival and proper functioning. Nucleus Golgi Apparatus - Contains genetic material - A system of flattened membrane for the cell. sacs. Endoplasmic Reticulum Mitochondria - Synthesize cellular materials. - Often referred to as the power house of the cell. Ribosomes Lysosomes - Small complex protein that assemble - Contain digestive enzymes proteins from RNA to break down waste materials and cellular debris. Vacuole Cytoplasm - Empty bags within the cell. - Jelly-like substance that fills the empty area within the cell. Cytoskeleton Chloroplast -Perform photosynthesis to convert The protein fibers and other light energy into chemical energy molecules that gives shape and structure to cells in the body. Mitochondrion Cell Membrane The organelle where chemical energy is produced through - Protects the inner organelle. cellular respiration.  Microtubules Cilia Movers and shakers of the cell evolutionary conserved, interior. The threadlike, intracellular membrane-bound, structures that are responsible for microtubular projections various movements in all eukaryotic emanating from the cell cell. surface Flagella Perixisomes previously known as Microscopic hair-like microbodies, are tiny vesicular, structures involved in the single membrane-bound cell locomotion of a cell. organelles in the cytoplasm of all eukaryotic cells. Microvilli Centrioles finger-like membrane paired barrel-shaped organelles protrusions, supported by the located in the cytoplasm of animal actin cytoskeleton, and found cells near the nuclear envelope. on almost all cell types. Secretory Vesicle a vesicle that mediates the vesicular transport of cargo from an orgalle to specific sites at the cell membrane, where it docks and fuses to release its content.  SPONTANEOUS MUTATIONS & INDUCED MUTATION, GENETIC MOSAICS Anota  MUTATIONS Mutations play an Mutations are heritable changes in the important role in DNA sequence. They are fundamental to evolution by introducing understanding genetics because they new traits into a introduce variations in genetic material. population, some of These variations can either be harmful, which might offer a beneficial, or neutral, depending on the survival advantage. mutation's effect on the organism. Germ-line Mutations: These Types of Mutations mutations occur in cells that give rise to gametes (sperm and egg cells). Unlike somatic Somatic Mutations: These occur in non-reproductive mutations, these changes can cells, which means the mutations are not passed on to be passed to future offspring but can affect the individual in which they generations and play a crucial occur. These mutations can lead to issues like cancer. role in evolution and heredity.  SPONTANEOUS MUTATIONS Spontaneous mutations occur naturally without any external cause. These arise from internal cellular processes, such as mistakes during DNA replication or the movement of transposable elements (jumping genes). Random in Nature: Spontaneous mutations happen by chance and are not directed toward any specific goal. They produce genetic variation within a population, which is the raw material for natural selection and evolution. CAUSES OF SPONTANEOUS MUTATIONS DNA Replication Errors: During replication, the DNA polymerase enzyme might occasionally insert the wrong base, causing a base substitution. These errors are rare because the cell has proofreading mechanisms that correct most mistakes, but some do slip through. Tautomeric Shifts: The DNA bases (Adenine, Thymine, Cytosine, Guanine) can exist in slightly different chemical forms known as tautomers. A tautomeric shift can cause the base to pair incorrectly (e.g., Thymine may pair with Guanine instead of Adenine), leading to a mutation.  TAUTOMERIC SHIFTS AND STRAND SLIPPAGE Transposable Elements: These are segments of DNA that can move from one location in the genome to another. Their movement can disrupt normal gene function, leading to mutations. Although they are a natural part of the genome, their activity can result in genomic instability. Strand Slippage: During DNA replication, the newly synthesized strand can slip backward or forward, causing regions of the DNA sequence to be duplicated or deleted. This process is particularly common in regions with repeated sequences and can lead to microsatellite instability (variations in the number of repeating units). This phenomenon is often seen in certain types of cancer. UNEQUAL CROSSING OVER Unequal crossing over is a type of gene duplication or deletion event that deletes a sequence in one strand and replaces it with a duplication from its sister chromatid in mitosis or from its homologous chromosome during meiosis. WOBBLE BASED PAIRING Wobble base pairing refers to the flexibility in the pairing of codons and anticodons during translation. While most codons follow strict pairing rules (A-U, C-G in RNA), the third base of the codon can sometimes "wobble," allowing one tRNA to pair with multiple codons. EXAMPLES OF WOBBLE BASE PAIRING Hypoxanthine: This modified base found in tRNA can pair Guanine-Uracil (G-U): This is a with Uracil (U), Adenine (A), common wobble pairing in or Cytosine (C), enhancing RNA. the flexibility of the genetic code. INDUCED MUTATIONS Induced mutations are those caused by environmental agents called mutagens, which increase the mutation rate beyond the natural, spontaneous level. These agents can damage the DNA or interfere with the replication process. CAUSES OF INDUCED MUTATIONS Radiation: High-energy Base Analogs: These are radiation like X-rays or chemical compounds that Alkylating Agents: These gamma rays can cause DNA resemble the normal bases in chemicals modify DNA by breaks or damage, while UV DNA. When incorporated adding alkyl groups, which light causes base during replication, they cause alter base pairing, resulting modifications that lead to changes in base pairing, in mutations. mutations like thymine leading to mutations. dimers. MOSAICISM & IONIZING RADIATION Ereneo MOSAICISM a condition where an individual has two or more populations of cells with different genetic makeup within their body. This occurs when a genetic mutation happens in some cells after fertilization, so not all cells in the body are identical. This condition can affect any type of cell, including: Blood cells Egg and sperm cells Skin cells SOMATIC MOSAICISM Location: The mutation occurs in some of the body cells after fertilization but does not affect the reproductive cells. Effect on the Individual: The individual may have symptoms or characteristics of the mutation, depending on which body cells are affected and to what extent. Inheritance: The mutation is not typically passed on to the next generation since it is not in the reproductive cells. SOMATIC MOSAICISM Examples: Pallister-Killian syndrome (PKS) This condition is characterized by extremely weak muscle tone (hypotonia) in infancy and early childhood, intellectual disability, distinctive facial features, sparse hair, areas of unusual skin coloring (pigmentation), and other birth defects.typically arises randomly, not inherited from parents. McCune-Albright syndrome is a disorder that affects the bones, skin, and several hormone- producing (endocrine) tissues. CAUSES: Mosaicism is caused by an error in cell division very early in the development of the unborn baby. Examples of mosaicism include: Mosaic Down syndrome Mosaic Klinefelter syndrome Mosaic Turner syndrome GONADAL MOSAICISM Location: The mutation is present in the reproductive cells (sperm or eggs) only. Effect on the Individual: The person typically shows no symptoms of the mutation because it doesn't affect their body cells. However, they can pass the mutation on to their children, who may then have a genetic disorder. Inheritance: This form of mosaicism explains why a genetic condition can appear in a child even if neither parent shows any signs of the condition. FACTORS INDUCING MOSAICISM  Endogenous factors : Mobile elements, DNA ACTOR polymerase slipage, and unalanced chromosomal segregation Exogenous factors: Nicotine and UV Radiation, especially ionizing radiation (like X-rays and gamma rays), can break DNA strands or cause other forms of DNA damage. This damage can lead to mutations if not properly repaired. IONIZING RADIATION IONIZING RADIATION is a type of radiation with enough energy to remove tightly bound electrons from atoms, creating ions. This process can damage or alter the DNA within cells, leading to mutations. Ionizing Radiation :Common sources include X-rays, gamma rays, and some types of particles like alpha and beta particles. Non-ionizing Radiation: Radio, Microwave, etc. Radioactive Decay Victor Radioactive decay is the process by which an unstable atomic nucleus loses energy by emitting radiation. This decay occurs naturally and transforms the original unstable element (or isotope) into a more stable one. Types of Decay Alpha Decay The nucleus emits an alpha particle (2 protons and 2 neutrons), reducing its atomic number by 2 and mass number by 4. Beta Decay The nucleus emits a beta particle (an electron or a positron) and a neutrino. This process changes a neutron into a proton (or vice versa), altering the atomic number but not the mass number. Gamma Decay The nucleus emits a gamma ray, which is high-energy electromagnetic radiation, without changing the atomic number or mass number. X-RAY  Unlike light, however, x-rays have higher energy and can pass through most objects, including the body. X-RAY USES OF X-rays: MEDICAL IMAGING X-RAY FILMS CT SCANS is a form of electromagnetic SECURITY radiation with high energy and short wavelengths.