Bio Book Lines + Most Important Points PDF

CH#3 ENZYMES Enzymes are globular proteins Co factor= bridge between enzyme and substrate Non-protein part covalently bonded to enzyme= prosthetic group Loosely attached to protein part= coenzyme Enzymes simply dissolved in cytoplasm Active site of enzymes= binding site+ catalytic site pH Pepsin 2 Sucrase 4.5 Enterokinase 5.5 Salivary amylase 6.8 Catalase 7.6 Chymotrypsin 7-8 Pancreatic lipase 9 Arginase 9.7 Chlorenchymatous cells carry out photosynthesis Cell membrane 60-80% protein 20-40% lipids Peptidoglycan= murien Large and small subunit of ribosome attachment is controlled by Mg +2 ion Old mitichondria digested by lysosomes by autophagy Centrioles play a role in formation of cilia Undifferentiated cells have 30000 nuclear pores per nucleus Erythrocytes have 3-4pores/nucleus Chromosome Chimpanzee 48 Onion 16 Potato 48 CH#4 CELL Father of botany- Theophrastus Science of exception- bionics Physical basis of life was explained by- Huxley Lipid synthesis takes place in- smooth ER Nucleus discovered by Robert Brown in cells of "orchids" The term ribosome was obtained by- Palade Plasma membrane also called as cell membrane and unit membrane In cell membrane of animals lipid is present about 50% Cholesterol absent in plant and bacterial cells Plasma membrane ke structure me oligosaccharides are attached to integral proteins whereas glycolipids are directly attached to the layer Primary wall 1.3 micrometer Sec wall 5-10 micrometer Seed hairs of cotton plant- gossypium Lamella - Ca and Mg pectate Pri wall- hemicellulose cellulose and pectic substances Sec wall- cellulose lignin No of chromosome in corn 20 Rough Er present in salivary glands pancreas Smooth Er present in lipid producing cells Mitochondria 0.2-1nm in diameter and 10 micrometer long Enzymes in mitochondria are located in inner membrane (cristae) Matrix - energy rich area Golgi bodies - 1898 discovered Cis face is recieving end of golgi apparatus Trans face is shipping side Tay sachs death by age 3 Gaucher infant form Krabbe death by age 2 Proplastids occur in meristematic tissues Glyoxysome fatty acid into sugar Microfilaments actin and myosin Intermediate vimnetin Microtubules tubulin Eukaryotes 80s ribosome, small 40s large 60s subunits Prokaryotes 70s ribosome, 50s large 30s small subunits Ribosomes contain abt 50 diff kinds of proteins Ribosomes are attached to er by large subunits Centrosome contain pair of centrioles Vacuoles are nonprotoplasmic Plant vacuoles act as lysosome Homology divergent evolution Analogy convergent evolution Main tool for classifying organisms- genetics CHAPTER 5 VIRUS Virus can pass through porcelin fibres whereas bacterias cant Wendell stanley crystallized viruses Virus 20nm-250nm No of capsomeres characteristic of a virus Tmv- helical or isometric having a rod like appearance Antisepsis- procedures to reduce or eliminate possibility of infection Rabies also called hydrophobia Misuse of antibiotics Penicillin- allergic reactions Streptomycin- affect auditory nerve causing deafness Tetracycline- discolouration of teeth Species basic unit of classification Allium cepa- onion Margulis and Schwartz modified Whittaker scheme by considering " cellular organization, mode of nutrition, cytology, genetics and organelles of symbiotic origin" Bacteriophage= bacteria eater, disovered by Twort(1915) and D'Herelle(1917) Pox virus 250nm Parvovirus 20 nm Viruses are obligate intracellular parasites Viruses are generally resistant to broad range of antibiotics 162 capsomeres in herpes virus 252 in adenovirus(cause common colds) Icosahedral- having 20 faces Helical are rod shaped T2 and T4 are used in phage studies Lysogenic virus: Detachment of viral DNA from host's chromosome and beginning of lytic cycle is called induction Mumps and measles develop immunity in their victims Rna tumor virus- retrovirus-oncovirus Hiv is host specified Hepatitis A - infectious hepatitis, vaccine available serum hepatitis, second major form, vaccine available non A non B hepatitis(former name), often leads to chronic liver disease, causes infusion hepatitis, less severe than H A and B, no vaccine is present for H C delta hepatitis Hepatitis E- can be caused by pig, transmitted through feaces of infected person Viral hepatitis is of 7 types (A-G) Bacteriophage - 5 diff proteins (tadpole) Polio virus- spherical Single stranded RNA- HIV Double stranded DNA- Hepatitis B Adsorption, injection, reproduction, lysis. Lytic - virulent Lysogenic- temperate Tiny molecules of naked RNA- viroids(nuclear gene) Infectious protein- prions, misfolded form of protein present in brain cells. Aids discovered in 1985 Rabies discovered by louis pasteur Rhabdo virus- rod shaped Flu is caused by adeno virus(check) Horizontal transmission - external source Vertical - inherited from parents Hiv affects T cells (T4 or helper) "Aids involves defect in cell mediated immunity" Skin cancer- kaposi's sarcoma Septicemia- blood poisoning Sumarin- antiparasitic drug Hepatitis A- enveloped RNA virus, transmitted by feaces ""Hepatitis B- serum hepatitis, unusual Dna virus(small circular molecule of partly double stranded Dna), 359 nucleotides, viral genome encodes two proteins and Dna polymerase, also causes liver cancer, health problem among Asians, Africans and male homosexuals"" Hepatitis C - mother to child during pregnancy CHAPTER 6 PROKARYOTAE Bacteria 0.2 to 2 micron in breadth, 2 -10 micron in length Volutine granules= intracytoplasmic storage form of complex inorganic polyphosphate Flagella originate from basal body Bacterial capsule is made up of polysaccharides and protein Cell wall has peptidoglycan Archaebacteria do not have peptidoglycan Cell membrane in bacteria helps in respiration Mesosomes also help in respiration , cell division, dna replication and export of enzyme Plasmids provide resistance against antibiotics Bacterial chlorophyll was discovered by Von Neil in 1930 Iron crystals are formed within bacterial cytoplasm Conjugation - pilli- laderberg and tatum in 1946 Transduction - bacteriophage- laderberg and zinder 1952 Transformation- heat killed having effect on alive- fred griffith 1928 Riboflavin - vit B2 produced by clostridium Vaccination - active immunization Oral vaccine - polio Injected vaccine- tetanus Cyano bacteria pigments- chlorophyll a and phycocyanin Single filament - trichome Ribosomes pseudovacuoles and reserve food in form of cyanophyceae starch is present in nostoc Nostoc- first colonizers of moist soil Heterocyst- centre of nitrogen fixation Bacteria- pioneers of cellular organization Prokaryotic cell wall is composed of polysaccharide chains bound covalently to shorter chains of aminoacids forming peptidoglycan or murien. The entire wall is regarded as molecular comole called " sacculus" Bacteria called as animacules by Antony Van Leeuvenhook Pasteur- made vaccines for anthrax, fowl cholera and rabies Robert Koch- germ theory of disease Smallest bacteria(mycoplasma) is the size of largest virus(pox virus) Bacteria in brown surgeonfish- Acanthrus nigrofuscus True pilli are only present on gram negative bacteria Pilli made up of protein pilin Cell wall of archaebacteria- proteins, glycoproteins and polysaccharides Chromatin body of bacteria visible under light microscope after staining with "Feulgen stain" Cysts are not heat resistant Green, purple sulphur and purple non sulphur bacteria are photosynthetic Pseudomonas(bacilli)- aerobic bacteria Spirochete- anaerobic E.coli- facultative anaerobic Campylobacter- microaerophilic Bacteria lack mitosis and traditional sexual repro Sterilization- destruction of all life forms, generally gamma rays are used Moist heat- coagulation of protein and kills microbes Dry heat- oxidation of chem constituents of microbes and kills them Chemical substances used on living tissues that inhibit growth of microorganism- antiseptics Microbicidal- kills microbes immediately Microbistatic- inhibits reproductive capacities and maintains microbial population at constant size CHAPTER 7 PROTOCTISTA Phycoerythrin- red pigment present in red algae Chlorella - fresh water flagella *algae Repro by aplanospores Pyrenoids store starch Ulva marine alga Asexual repro by quadriflagellate zoospores Sexual by biflagellate Amoeboid stage of slime mold is called plasmodium Slime mold cells formed by spore germination are biflagellated Water mold asexual repro by biflagellate zoospores Sexual repro in water molds discoverd by Clinton in 1911 Protozoa - 30000 species Ciliata- balintidium, opalina paramecium Suctoria- acineta Sporozoa- plasmodium, monocystis Flagellata- trypanosoma Sarcodina- amoeba, radiolarian ooze and globigerina ooze CHAPTER 8 FUNGI Fungi have a characteristic mitosis- nuclear mitosis Multinucleated large cell without hypha- coenocytic Armillaria a pathogenic fungus afflicts conifers All fungal nuclei are haploid except zygote formed which also directly after fusion divides by meiosis Pleurotus ostreatus (pearl oyster) and Arthrobotyrs are predator fungi and their preys are nematodes Saprobic fungi have modified hypha called rhizoid Parasitic have called haustoria Of vascular plants Lichen = fungi + alga Mycorrhiza = fungi + plants(roots) Ph tolerated 2-9 Endomycorrhiza = present in surrounding region as well as penetrate Ecto = only in surrounding Pinus, firs= ectomycorrhiza Orchid= endomycorrhiza Spores are produced in both asexual.and sexual repro Fungi store excess food as lipid droplets or glycogen Zygomycota 600 species Lack septa Bread molds, black bread molds, mucor, rhizopus Smallest group Asexual repro more common by sporangia Sexual by zygospore Saccharomyces crevisiae- fermentation Candida- vaginal and oral thrush Ascomycota Largest group 30000 species Yeasts morels truffles powdery mildew cup fungi neurospora Asexual by conidia Sexual by ascocarp Also called sac fungi Female gametangia has trichogyne for recieving male gametes Eight ascospores are formed Cup fungi and morels - opothecium Neurospora- perithecium Deuteromycota Fungi imperfecti 17000 species No sexual reproduction Parasexualitu occurs Penicillium- penicillin, flavour and aroma to cheese Aspergillus fermenting soya sauce and soya paste Citric acid is also prepared Aspergillosis ear lung disease Moniliassis gum skin mouth Basidiomycota 16000 species Mushrooms toadstools puffballs jelly fungi shelf fungi rust smut Asexual not mentioned in our book therefore sexual more common Sexual by badidium Also called club fungi 4 haploid spores are produced Histoplasmolysis lung infection Aspergillus fumigatus - aflatoxins Pink yeast rhodotrula on shower curtains Protozoans- ingest their food by endocytosis Locomotion Amoeba- pseudopodia Zooflagellates- flagella Actinopods- pseupodia Foraminifera-pseudopodia Apicomplexans-none(parasites), most are digenic Ciliata- cilia Giant amoeba- Pelomyxa palustris- most primitive of all eukaryotes, obtain enetgy from methanogenuc bacteria which reside within them Trichonymphas- live in gut of termites as symbionts and help in digestion of dry wood Micronuclei- sexual repro Macronuclei- cell metabolism and growth Foraminiferans and actinopods produce shells Foraminiferans produce of calcium(have created vast limestone deposits) whereas actinopods of silica Radiolarians are actinopods with glassy shell Rhodophyta- red algae (no flagella), take part in coral reefs Chlorophyta- green algae(have flagella) Phaeophyta- brown algae(two flagella on repro cells), kelps the largest brown alga Chrysophyta-diatoms (no flagella), major producers Pyrrophyta- dinoflagellates(two flagella), imp group of producers Euglenophyta- euglenoids (two flagella one long one short) Marine alga are source of useful substances like algin, agar, carrageenan and antiseptics Feeding stage of slimemold- plasmodium Plasmodial slimemold Physarum polycephalum is a model organism Water molds- cell wall made of cellulose Cyanobacteria- gram negative Oscillatoria- pollution indicator Super blue green alga- complete whole food -60% proteins with all essential aminoacids in perfect balance Mycologist- who study fungi Reproductive structures- mushrooms, puffballs, morels Mildews are obligate parasites Oyster mushroom- nitrogen requirements by nematodes and carb requirements by breaking wood (omnivorous) Fungi grow best in moist habitats Rhizopus - black bread mold Pilobilus -spitting fungus, both belong to zygomycota(conjugating fungi) Morels are mycorrhizal, Morchella esculenta Puccinia species are most common rust fungi Ustilago most common smut "Ustilago tritici (loose smut of wheat) spores are teliospores" PAST NTS Penicillium - blue green molds Aspergillus- brown molds Brush like arrangement of conidia is characteristic of penicillium Death stool - Amanita Reindeer moss is a lichen Lovastatin used for lowering blood cholesterol Cyclosporine- used in organ transplantation Ergotine- to relieve migraine Griseofulvin- inhibit fungal growth PLANTAE Sporopollenin polymer resistant to all kinds of environmental damage Bryophytes dominant gametophyte Cuticle noncellular layer of wax like substance cutin Paraphyses help to prevent drying of sex organs Oospore - zygote Hepaticea - liverworts Musci - moss, gametophyte with transistory prostrate stage called protonema Anthocerotae - hornworts, most advanced group, sporophyte can survive without gametophyte Funaria hygrometrica- moss Protoandry - maturation of male sex organs before female Attractant for sperms- sugarcane scent Tracheophyta Have protective layer of sterile jacket cells around repro organs Dominant sporophyte Psilopsida Living genera Psilotum and Tmespteris Rhynia most primitive vascular plant One veined leaf- microphyllous Many veined leaf- megaphyllous, first step planation, second step webbing Lycopsida- club mosses Five genera alive Formed Earth's first forest Lycopodium- running pine or ground pine, homosporous Selaginella- heterosporous Sphenopsida- horse tails Coal is formed from these plants Homosporous Pteropsida- ferns Evolved from psilopsida Leaves are simple but mostly compound Homosporous Adiantum or dryopteris Leaves bearing sori- sporophyll Prothallus - gametophyte is independent heart shaped Archegonium secretes malic acid at maturity Prothallus after formation of sporophyte degenerates Spermopsida Gametophytes are very reduced Heterosporous Gymnosperm Naked seed No fruit Cycads declined in cretaceous period but nine genera survive today called sago palms Gingko- maidenhair tree Best group of gymnosperm- conifer Pine - repro structure- cones Mature female gametophyte produces 2-5 archegonia Pollen grains- multicellular haploid structure, germinated pollen contains six nuclei (4 active and 2 of degenerated cells) Angiosperms Hv ovary Hv fruit Ovules enclosed within modified leaves called carpels Flower - compressed reproductive shoot with four whorls of modified leaves Became dominant in cenzoic era Thalamus- receptacle Sepals- calyx Petals- corolla Stamen- androecium Carpels- gynoecium Seven celled eight nucleate structure- female gametophyte (embryo sac) Anther- 4 microsporangia Generative nucleus- technically a cell with almost no cytoplasm After fertilization Ovule- seed Ovary- fruit Endosperm nucleus- endosperm Classification or grouping : taxonomy or systematics starts life as a zygote , diploid cell cleavage -multicellular >solid ball of mass called morula > hollow ball of cells blastula > blastula invaginates to form gastrula. sac like opening in gastrula is called blastopore hollow dig sys called enteron if it is open at one end Phylum porifera into sub kingdom parazoa and the rest 8 into sub phylum eumetazoa eumetazoa form three germinal layers from which organs develop germ layers - ectoderm, endoderm mesoderm Rosaceae Important in temperate regions Ranks third in commercial inportance Rosa indica rose Pyruspastia- tobacco pipes Crataegus and cotoneaster- walking sticks Rose water- eye diseases Pyrus malus- apple Pyrus communis- pear Pyrus persica- peach Pyrus amygdalus- almond Phylum porifera is not divided into parazoa and eumetazoa Porifera is placed in sub kingdom parazoa and the rest 8 are placed in eumetazoa Solanaceae - nightshade or potato family Ovary obliquely placed Family provide drugs and food Brinjal- egg plant- Solanum melongena Fruit of capsicum rich in vit A and C Physalis- ground cherry- husk tomato Atropa belladona - deadly nightshade- atropine- medicinal imp Datura (james town weed) - daturine- medicinal imp Solanum tubersom- potato Lycopersicum esculentum- tomato Capsicum annum- red pepper Petunia alba- petunia Solanum nigrum- black nightshade Datura alba- thorn apple Nicotiana tabacum- tobacco Cestrum nocturnum- lady of the night Fabaceae - papilionaceae- pea family Vexillary aestivation - papilionaceous corolla Medicinal imp Family is a source of high protein food Pulses belong to this family Cicer arietinum- channa- gram pea Pisum sativum- pea Lens esculanta- masure Phaseolus aureus- mung Phaseolus mung- urad Phaseolus vulgaris- kidney bean Medicago sativa, alfalfa - lusan Timber plants- butea , dalbergia Arachis hypogea- peanut Indigofera tinctoria- neel- indigo dye Butea monosperma- yellow dye Glycyrrhiza glabra- cough and cold Clitoria termatea- snake bite Abrus precatorious- ratti Lathyrus odoratus- sweet pea Dalbergia sisso- red wood Sesbania aegyptica- sesbania Caesalpinacea- cassia family Medicinal, ornamental and food imp Cassia fistula- amaltus- cure ring worm and skin disease Cassia senna and cassia obovata- drug senna used as laxative Cynometera cauliflora- oil used for skin disease Bauhinia verigata- camels foot- kachnar- used as vegetable Haematoxylon- long wood- dye hematoxylin Bauhinia perpurea, tamarus indicus(imli) - barks used for tanning Poinciana regia- flame of the forest- ornamental Parkinosia roxburgai- vilayati kikar- ornamental Poaceae- Graminae- Grass family Imp as it provides food fodder ornamentals Composed of units called spikelets Two lower bracts - glumes are empty Perianth(calyx+corolla) is represented by lodicule Stigma feathery Triticum indicum- wheat Avena sativa- oats Oryza sativa- rice Zea mays- indian corn Saccharum officinarum- sugar cane- sugar is obtained Hordeum vulgare- barley Pennisetum typhoideum- bajra Bambusoideae- bamboo - vegetable and soup dish Mimosaceae- acacia family Albizzia lebbek- siris- cabinet wood and railway carriages Acacia, albizzia and xylia- used for construction and fuel Acacia nilotica--gum tree- arabic gum, leaves of this plant are used as blood purifier Acacia catechu- A.senegal katha (a dye) Prosopis glandulosa- for breaking wind pressure Mimosa pudica- touch me not- chhui mui Efficiency of aerobic respiration= 40% In aerobic respiration--> 36atp Anaerobic---> 2 atp Energy yield is 18 times greater in aerobic than anaerobic Glycolysis- cytosol Kreb cycle- mitochondrial matrix Electron transport chain- inner membrane of mitochondria Stearic= C18 Oleic= C18 with 1 double bond Phosphatidylcholine= lecithin Isoprenoid C5H8 F. Sanger= discovered sequence of aminoacid in a protein molecule Insulin= 2 polypeptides. Total amino acids 51, one has 21 the other 30 Heamoglobin= 4 chains 2 alpha(each has 141 aminoacids) 2 beta(each has 146 aminoacids) Alpha helix= 3.6 aminoacids in each turn Fibrous protein= sec structure Globular protein= ter structure Dna = one OH removed at C 2 Most cell secretions are glycoprotein in nature Communities are dynamic collection of organisms Biomes are primarily determined by climate A phyletic lineage is an unbroken series of species arranged in ancestor to descendant sequence with each later species having evolved from one that immediately preceded it Science- systematized knowledge Scientific law- irrefutable theory Biological control- control by some living organism Hydroponic- used to determine whether a certain nutrient is essential for plant or not Cowpox pus= vacca (first developed vaacine) Combating disease utilizing all methods as and when required amd ensuring a participation of community in this programme is known as integrated disease management Algae reduce pollution of heavy metals by bioabsorption Anabolic= simple to complex , requires energy Catabolic= complex to simple, releases energy C-H= potential source of energy for chem reactions C-O= in carbs provides stability to complex carbs Human tissues= 20% water Brain cells= 85% water All reactions occur in aqueous media Specific heat of vaporization of water= 574Kcal/kg Sakcharon= sugar Tetroses are rare in nature and occur in some bacteria In blood= 0.08% glucose 10g glucose requires 717.6 kcal of solar energy Starch= blue colour with iodine Glycogen= red colour with iodine Cellulose= no colour with iodine Triglyceride= neutral lipid Fatty acids contain even no of C atoms= 2-30 Max= 6 double bonds in fatty acid Animals= straight chain fatty acid Plants= maybe branched or ringed Palmitic= C16 Animalia Microscopic parazoan Balaenoptera 40m and 160000kg Animals arisen from volvox like protoctist Multicellular - metazoa Unicellular- protozoa 33 phyla 9 major Blastopore present in gastrula stage Enteron one opening Gut two openings Cnidarians diploblastic Rest all are triploblastic Porifera no layers Cnidaria radially symmetrical Rest all bilaterally Echinoderms young bilateral adults radial Acoelomata platyhelminthes Pseudocoelomata nematodes Rest are coelomata Coelom formed by splitting of mesodermal layer Annelida arthropoda mollusca protostomes Echinodermata chordata deuterostomes Porifera 5000 species Pinacocytes - epidermis Porocyte- pores Choanocytes- flagellated cells Spicules- skeleton Amoebocytes- pigments presence Larva- amphiblastula Asexual repro by gemmule layers present diploblastic -cndiarian layers triploblastic rest of the kingdom symmettry is overall shape no symmetry means asymmetrical-sponges radial symmetry - body can be divided into identical halves by any plane ex: cnidaria and echinoderm bilateral symmetrical- animal cut into right or left half by mid line Acoelomata : platyhelminthes Pseudocolemata : nematodes Coelomata : from annelida to chordata blasopore develops into embryo and either form mouth or anus at the end proto=first protostomata blastopore forms mouth eg annelida, mollusca,arthropoda deutro=second stoma=mouth deutrostomata blastopore forms anus eg echinodermata and chordata Porifera 5000 species, simplest animals, pores called ostia lack mouth, intestine, respiratory and dig, excretory and nervous sys Diffusion of gases and food assemblage of loosely organized cell-sponge pinnacoytes epidermis porocytes pores choanocytes endodermis ascon type -spongocoel single cavity sycon -2 cavities leucon-more than 2 cavities sponges look coloured due to presence of pigments in amoebocytes or due to symbiotic algae spicules maybe calcareous or siliceous 10 cm sponges filter 20 litre water everyday amphiblastula larva asexual reproduction by spore like gimmule formation Skeleton basis class eg sycon calecalerea, euplectella hexactinellada. euspongia from demospongia Cnidaria 9000 species Radial symmetry Diploblastic Carnivores Stinging cells cnidocytes Tissue grade organization 2 body forms polyp and medusa Polyp sessile, asexual Medusa motile, sexual Larva planula Red coral Marjan Platyhelminthes 15000 species Soft bodied Flat ribbon shaped Acoelomate Bilateral symmetry Triploblastic Either monogenic or digenic Nemathelminthes 20000 species Bilateral symmetry Triploblastic Pseudocoelomate Round worms with pointed ends Annelida 15000 species Segmented worms Metamerically segmented Triploblastic Bilateral symmetry Coelomate Setae with or without parapodia for locomotion Closed type circulatory system with many pulsatile hearts Larva trochophore Hirudin- prevents blood clotting Earthworm - farmers friend Mollusca 50000 species living 35000 fossil= 85000 Largest after arthropoda Squid largest inverteberate Triploblastic Coelomate Bilateral symmetry Larva trochophore Gastropoda largest class Bivalvia second largest Cephalopods all marine Pearl is formed when any substance comes in between mantle and shell Arthropoda Largest phylum One million species Bilateral symmetry Triploblastic Metamerically segmented Coelom is haemocoel Exoskeleton- chitin Farming of bees- apiculture Farmimg of silkworm- sericulture King Crab living fossil Silk is a protein Crustacea most economic class Sacculina is a parasite Insecta- largest class of animal kingdom Study of insects- entomology Rat fleas are involved in transmission of Plague Silver fish bookshelves Ecinodermata spiny skinned 6000 species Bilateral symmetry in larvae Adults radial Coelomates Deuterostome Pentaradial Triploblastic Calcareous plates skeleton Water vascular system Madreporite- water storage takes place Larva bipinnaria Echinoderms evolved as a side branch from common dipleura which also gave rise to hemichordates and chordates Hemichoradata half notochord 90 species Bilateral symmetry Balanoglossus gigas 1.5m Open circulatory system Larva- tornaria Chordata 45000 species Bilateral symmetry Triploblastic Deuterostome Coelomate Organs are suspended by thin membranous tissue called mesentery Acraniata divided into Urochordates- tunicates (notochord in tail), retrogessive metamorphosis Cephalochordata (notochord fron head to tail), branchiostoma also called amphioxus Craniata or verteberata divided into Agnatha (no jaws) commonly calked cyclostomes Gnathostomata (with jaws) divided in pisces and tetrapoda Pisces 25000 species Largest group of chordate Study is called ichthyology Streamlined body Chondrichthyes cartiligenous, also called Elasmobronchi, placoid scales, mouth ventral, tail heterocercal, 5 exposed gills Osteichthyes bony, teleostomi, largest class, mouth anterior, cycloid or ctenoid scales, air bladder present, tail homocercal or diphyocercal. Also include lung fishes belonging to order dipnoi Flatworms exhibit beginning of cephalization Tetrapoda Pentadactyl limbs Amphibia 2000 species Double life Cold blooded Winter hibernation Summer aestivation Amphibians arose from Rhipidistian(lobe finned fish) Coelocanth relative of rhipidistian a living fossil External fertilization Reptilia Cold blooded 5000 species Amniota Internal fertilization Oviparous Sphendon a living fossil Birds Ornithology 9000 species Warm blooded Pneumatic(hollow) bones Spindle shaped body Syrinx sound producing organ Internal fertilization Oviparous Amniota Ratitae flightless birds Carinatea flying birds Thecodont gave rise to dinosaurs and birds too Only one ovary Mammalia 4500 species Hair and mammary glands present Internal fertilization Ovi and viviparous Arose from Therapsida Prototheria egg laying also called monotremes, 3 species Metatheria pouched mammals, 250 species Also called marsupials Premature baby Eutheria placental mammals 95% of mammals Ungulates hoofed mammals Primates include man monkey gorilla apes lemurs Bats only flying mammal Largest terrestrial elephant Largest marine whale Markhor national animal Houbara bustard national bird PHYLUM NEMATHELMINTHES -ASCHELMINTHES -round worm 20,000 species, each rotting apple may contain 90000 species, bilaterally symmetrical, triploblastic, live as scavengers, predators and parasites on animals and even on plants. Ascaris-live in the intestine of man, sexually dimorphic male smaller than female, female ascaris produce 200000 eggs per day thread like worm Wuchereria transmitted by mosquito attack the lymphatic vessels of animals and man cause a disease filiriasis causing inflammation of arms,legs,scrotums and this condition is called elephantiasis Ancyclostomata a hook worm whose larva can penetrate through skin and reach the intestine where it matures and suck blood PHYLUM ANNELIDA SEGMENTED WORMS most complex worms distinguished by their rings annules 15000 species bilaterally symmetrical triploblastic coelomates close circulatory sys definite blood vessels many pulsatile hearts active free swimming predators and filter feeders trocophore larva Polychaeta eg sabella peacock worm clam worm neries oligochaeta eg earthworm pheretima Hirudnea eg leeche substance in leeche called hirudin prevents blood from clotting used in ploughing fields , fish bait, medicine sucking foul blood PHYLUM MOLLUSCA 50000 alive 35000 fossils squid 18m long 1800kg triploblastic coelomate bilaterally symmetrical open circulatory sys the major component of hydrostatic skeleton trocophore larva segmented worms and molluscs are related Gastropoda - largest class eg pila fresh water and terrestrial asymmetrical by twisting of visceral mass at 180 phenomenon called torsion Class bivalvia- shell with 2 halves second largest class marine and fresh water eg unio mytilus and pearl oyster Class cephalopoda foot on the head all marine foot transformed into suckers bearing tentacles and arms eg nautilus outer shell sepia cuttle fish inner shell devil fish octupus no shell loligo squid- largest invertebrate -inner shell shells are made of inner lusturous layer of calcium carbonate and proteins called necre or the mother of pearl. PHYLUM ARTROPODA largest phylum 1million species bilaterally symmetrical triploblastic metamerically segmented coelom is called haemocoel open type circulatory sys Respiration by gills in fish by trachea in insects by book lungs in scorpion compound eyes with mosaic vision metamorphosis heterophrodite complete metamorphosis butterfly incomplete grasshopper and cockroach Jointed appendages for swimming running flying food capture copulation sensory perceptions attachment of muscles exoskeleton water proof made up of chitin Undergo moulting and ecdysis Nematodes have largest number of species but the largest phylum is arthropoda 80% arthropods and 90% arthropods are insects humans transmit plasmodium tryapnosoma and germs of cholera apiculture farming pf honey bee sericulture farming of silk worm CLASS MEROSTOMATA King crab limulus cosnidered as living fossil mouth covered with plates CLASS ARACHNIDA four pairs of legs respire by book lungs, trachea and body surface eg scorpion largest no of species spider- posess silk gland which secrete protein which on exposure to air become silk thread CLASS CRUSTACEA prawns shrimps lobsters and crabs marine fresh water and terrestrial cephalothorax head and thorax fused covered by exoskeleton carapace Five pairs of legs eg sacculina are parasite daphnia and cyclops fresh water microscopic MYRIAPODA many legs lead a hidden life Centipede one pair appendages per segment Millipede 2 pairs appendages per segment INSECTA OR HEXAPODA largest class study of insects called entomology With wings pterygota Without wings apterygota Modes of feedings biting and chewing cockroach piercing and sucking mosquito chewing and lapping honey bee sponging type house fly siphoning type butterfly social insects eg ants honey bees and termites flies and mosquito cause cholera , dysentary and malaria rat fleas cause deadly plague fleas are ectoparasite on warm blooded animals pests of plants grasshopper moths butter flies and beetles cockroaches damp places silver fish in book shelves tolerate 65'C and found in oil wells PHYLUM ECHINODERMATA 6000 species bilaterally symmetrical larva radially symmetrical adult lives always in sea pentaradial (pentamerous) posess spines tube feet perforated exoskeleton unique water vascular sys mostly sexual reproduction sometimes asexual Bipinnaria larva Eg star fish brittle star sea cucumber sea urchin bipinnaria larva resemble tornaria larva HEMICHORDATA 90 species half notochord live in burrows solitary or colonial few mm to 250 cm in length Balangossus gigas length 1.5 m no sexual dimorphism PHYLUM CHORDATA forms notochord 45000 species -Notochord found in early stage of all chordates but disappear in some at adult stage and transform into vertebral column -Hollow dorsal tubular nerve cord fluid filled in craniata it differentiate into brain and spinal cord -pharyngeal gill slits in early stages and disappear in adult in terrestrial whereas in quatic transform into gills -Acraniata or protochordata no brain box notochord doesn't form vertebral column -urochordata body enclosed in tunic called tunicates eg ascidia, herdmania -cephalochordata notochord from head to tail small group includes bronchiostomata also called amphioxus -Craniata or vertebrata carnium and vertebral column present sub classes Agnatha - also called cyclostomes mouth without jaws jawless fishes parasites eg hag fish and lamprey Gnathostomata - mouth with jaws super class pisces Pisces 25000 species study of fishes icthyology Chondrichthyes cartilagenous fishes placoid scales form exoskeleton tail heterocercal sharks, skates and rays torpedo shock producing ray scoliodon also called dog fish Osteichthyes- also called telestomi bony fishes cycloid or ctenoid exoskeleton tail is homocercal or diphycercal eg eel , sea horse, flying fish and globe fish Lung fishes of order dipnoi -only 3 genera Class amphibia 2000 species double mode of life lack exoskeleton respire by lungs, skin, gills and lining of buccal cavity lay eggs in water hibernation in winter aestivation in summer caecilians, lizard , frogs and toads toads have warty skin riphidistans were the ancestors of amphibians coelocanth are living fossil Reptilia 5000 species terrestrial crawl lay eggs on land covered by leathery shells amnion present poikilotherms two pairs of limbs pentadactylous snakes have no limbs no eyelids no ears Dinosaurs means terrible lizards egg permeable to gases Sphenodon living fossil eg snakes lizards turtles tortoise crocodiles and alligators Green turtle chelone mydas Fangs produce venom which is haemotoxic or neurotoxic green turtle lays eggs on same land it was born BIRDS 9000 species study of birds ornithology defined as feather covered bipedal flying vertebrate possessing wings sound box called syrinx toothless beak internal fertilisation eggs are large amniotic hard and calcareous Ratitae flightless birds running birds wings vestigeal or rudimentary sternum without keel eg ostrich kiwi penguin Carinatae flying birds sternum with keel eg hoopoes, fowls sea gulls terns and cranes are migratory birds Peacock and houbara most beautiful birds are often called glorified reptiles Theocodont gave rise to dinosaurs and birds birds are feathery dinosaurs MAMMALIA 4500 species distinguishing characteristics hair and mammary glands and muscular partition the diaphragm internal fertilisation origin from therapsida -Prototheria egg laying mammals echnida , duck biled platypus spiny ant eater, are connecting link btw reptiles and mammals -Metatheria Order marsupilia Viviparous pouch is called marsupium Pouched mammals eg kangroo koala bear and opossum -Eutheria placental mammals 95% mammals viviparous Ungulates hoofed mammals Bear is omnivore intelligent group lemurs monkey gorilla apes and man bats flying mammal Blind dolphin aquatic mammal pakistan has 174 species mammals 670 birds 177 reptiles 22 amphibians 788 fishes 1182 invertebrates 500 insects PHYLUM CNIDARIA also called coelantrata 9000 species, least complex metazoa, eg hydra,jelly fish, sea anemone radially symmetrical and diplobalstic coelontron serves as ridemenary gut Diffusion of gases and food Carnivores have special stinging cells called cnidocytes Two types of body Polyp- mouth and tentacles at upper end eg hydra, sea anemone and corals medusa- umbrella shaped mouth and tentacles at lower side eg jelly fish Planula larva Alternation if generation Polymorphism -occurrence in different forms or zooids eg physalia dactylozooid defense gonozooids gonads gastrozooids dig coral reefs are under water lime stone ridges, restricted to warm water Red coral marjan is used in medicine by hakims PHYLUM PLATYHELMINTHES 15000 species, flat or ribbon shaped worms, most simple among the animals having head, rudementary nervous sys, bilaterally symmetrical, acoelomate, triploblastic with organs and organ sys, hermaphrodite, complete their cycle in host monogenic if 1 host involoved digenic if 2 host involved Classes eg: Trematoda -Fasciola -liver fluke , Turbalaria-Dugesia-planaria , Cestoda-taenia saginata-tape worm BIOENERGETICS *1 photon of light excites one electron. *The oxygen we breathe is the product of PS2 *Process of generation of ATP both in chloroplast and mitochondria is chemiosmosis. *There is net gain of 19AtP from one molecule of glycerol *In krebs cycle for every one molecule of glucose broken down two Acetyl-CoA molecules are formed *In glycolysis two molecules of NADPH and two molecules of ATP are produced *Inability of oxidative metabolism of the reduced products i.e lactic acid causes a condition called oxygen debt. its during extreme fatigue conditions. this debt ends when the metabolism that produces reduced products i.e lactic acid slows down. (courtesy by Book glossary given at the end) Cytochrome = any of the iron containing protein that acts as a carries in ETC.so according to this defination Ferridoxin (iron containing protein) can also be called Cytochrome.(courtesy by book glossary given at the end) *Oxidation of one molecule of glucose gives = 36 ATPin which 34 Atp are produced in ETC while 2 in Cytoplasm. *Glycolysis = 2atp used , 4made, 2 net gain*krebs cycle = 2 atp made ETC = 34 atp made *Total in aerobic respiration = 36/38 agr Q men dono options hon then 36 ko prefer krna hy. *Total in cellular respiration = 38/40 Agr Q men dono options hon then 38 ko prefer krna hy. *****Glycolysis**** 2NaDH2 or FADH2 are formed.2Atps are realeased. ***Formtion of Acetyl CoA.*** 2NADH2 or FADH2 are formed.No atp is released. ***Krebs cycle*** 6NADH2+2FADH2and 2atps are released ***Electron transport chain*** Total NADH2 = 10 (Each NADH2 molecule gives 3 atps)Total FADH2 = 2 (Each FADH2 gives 2 Atp)so no of atps 30+4 = 34 ***Total 38 possible atp molecules are formed during breakdown of one glucose molecule. But practically 36 molecules are formed. The glycolysis produces NADH2 in cytosol. 2 atp molecules are used for bringing these NADH2 to mitochondria. So 38-2 = 36Atp Copied from Sir Asad's post. Atp---> Adp + pi= 7.3kcal or 31kj Endergonic= energy gaining Exergonic= energy releasing Photosynthesis= anabolic Respiration= catabolic Carotene orange Phaelophytin grey Xanthophyll yellow Chlorophyll a blue green B yellow green Chl a C55H72O5N4Mg Chl b C55H70O6N4Mg Carotene absorbs green blue violet wavelength and reflects red yellow orange Light reac thylakoid membrane Light independent reac stroma Ps1 electron acceptor ferredoxin and electron donor plastocyanin Ps2 electron accecptor phaeophytin and intermediate donor water splitting complex Ps 1 and Atp synthase in non appresssed Ps 2 in appressed alongwith lhc 2 (light harvesting complex) Light reaction starts from ps2 Non cyclic ATP and Nadh2 both produced Cyclic only Atp Cyclic only involves Ps1 Dark reaction calvin benson cycle C3 cycle 13 reactions 11 enzymes Regeneration of RuBP involves enzyme 5-11 C4- sugar cane corn grass family Light reaction cycles req for production of glucose in dark cycle 6 light reactions Cam - cacti pineapples Oxidation of glucose= 673Kcal or 2823kj Fermentation louis pasteur Net gain of glycolysis 2Atp and 2nadh Flavour of pickle- lactic and acetic acid Krebs cycle citric acid cycle tricarboxylic acid cycle Glycolysis occurs in cytoplasm Krebs occur in mitochondria And overall net gain including glycolysis and etc 36 atp (check) Net gain of kreb cycle 30 atp Sun ----> producers 0.2% Producers---> primary consumers---> sec consumers---> ter consumers 5-20% Energy coming from sun 40% reflected back 15% absorbed by ozone 45% to earth out of which 2-3% is used by plants Energy transfer^ Plastocyanin- copper containing protein Plastoquinone- associated with ferrous ion As e goes down the chain , energy is lost and used for synthesis of ATP Ferredoxin- iron containing protein The path of e through 2 photosystems during non cyclic photophosporylation is known as Z-scheme When Atp conc low- cyclic phosphorylation In both cyclic and non cyclic- production of Atp- chemiosmosis Calvin- nobel prize 1961 Rubisco- most abundant protein in chloroplast and most abundant protein on Earth ""Cellulose- most abundant carbohydrate in nature- HEC PHASE 2 QUES"" Starch - second most abundant carb in nature G3P- formed in both cellular respiration and photosynthesis(dark reaction) C3H4O3- Pyruvic acid C3H6O3- Lactic acid Glycolysis- splitting of sugar The second and third phosphate are high energy bonds in ATP Oxygen- not essential for glycolysis The oxidation of phospho-glyceraldehyde (PGAL) is energy yielding process Acetyl CoA- active acetate Acetyl- 2C Citrate- 6C Oxaloacetate- 4C Fumerate- 4C Alpha ketogluterate- 5C Succinate- 4C Malate- 4C FAD(coenzyme)- oxidizing agent which is reduced to FADH2 Etc- Co enzyme Q--> Cyt a --> cyt c--> cyt a--> cyt a3 Nadh is oxidized by coenzyme Q Oxygen is the final acceptor of electrons in Etc and production of water takes place. Bioenergetics- study of quantitative study of energy relationships and conversions in biological system Atp- chemical link between catabolism and anabolism Photosynthesis- energy capturing Respiration- energy releasing Solar energy --> food energy--> chemical energy Purple sulphur bacteria- bacterio-chlorophyll and carotenoids Green sulphur- chlorobium chlorophyll NPK- 5,10,5 Nitrogen def Chlorosis Development of anthocyanin pigments Early senescence Phosphorous Helps in translocation of carbs Fruit ripening Def Necrotic patches Cambial activity is checked Potassium Stomatal opening Found in highest conc in meristematic cells Activator for enzymes Def Colour of leaves dull or bluish green Irregular chlorosis Magnesium Phosphorous carrier in plant Synthesis of fats and metabolism of carbs and phosphorous Def Chlorosis Necrotic spots Silica-- grass Cobalt- nitrogen fixing bacteria Nickle- soyabean Sodium- osmotic and ionic balance NUTRITION Parasitic plants-- haustoria Partial stem- Loranthus, Viscum, Cassytha filiformis Total stem- Cuscuta Partial root- Sandalwood Total stem- Orobanche, Cistanche, Striga Neotia(birds nest or orchid) and Monotrapa(indian pipe)- saprophytic plants Partially autotrophic and partially heterotrophic plants are carnivorous Dionea muscipula- Charles Darwin called it the most wonderful plant Sac like- enteron- one opening Tube like- gut- two openings Daphnia- filter feeder Mytilus- common mussel Assimilation- ultimate goal of nutrition Alimentary canal- 9m long Gastric juice secreted by gastric mucosa Erepsin- protein to aminoacids Microvilli take in food by pinocytosis Hydra- macrophagous- have glandular cells(for secretion of enzymes) and musco-elithelial cells(contraction of body wall which helps in circulation of food )- sac like - extra and intracellular digestion Planaria- carnivorous- sac type- branched intestine increasing the surface area for digestion, absorption and distribution of food- extra and intracellular digestion Cockroach- omnivorous- tubular- extracellular digestion- hepatic caeca lined by glandular cells Human digestive system- gastro intestinal tract Gall bladder- cystic duct Lower jaw is movably attached Two sets of teeth- diphyodont Embedded in gums- thecodont Diff shapes and sizes- heterodont Molars have no deciduous predecessors Plaque- mixture of bacteria and salivary materials Plaque+ chemicals in saliva- become calcified forming calculus 3 pairs of salivary glands - 1.5dm3 of saliva Oesophagus- 25 cm Cardiac and pylpric region of stomach- mucous glands Zymogen cells- Pepsin Oxyntic cells- HCl Layers of stomach Logitudinal muscle layer Circular muscle layer Oblique muscle layer Serosa Gastrin is produced by stomach in the presence of partially digested protein Mixing waves move along the stomach- 20 sec Small intestine- 6m Duodenum- 30 cm Bile - yellow in colour turns green on exposure to air Secretin is produced by duodenum under the stimulus of HCl present with chyme Digestion of fat is completed in duodenum Jejunum- 2.4m Digestion of food is completed within the jejunum Ileum- 3.6m Receives food in solution form Stored food is delivered to liver by hepatic portal vein Active transport is employed in the absorption of digested food Large intestine- 1.5m Appendix- 18cm Symbiotic bacteria present in large intestine synthesize vit K Liver is the largest gland Skin largest organ Liver processes fatty acids and stores them as ketone bodies which are later released as nutrients for active muscles Faeces- dead bacteria, cellulose, other plant fibres, dead mucosal cells, mucus, cholesterol, bile pigment derivatives and water Dysentery- caused by bacillary and amoebic infection Piles- haemmorhoids, external piles- covered by skin and internal piles - lie beneath the anal mucous membrane Food poisoning- gastro entritis Salmonella common cause of food poisoning Extreme protein deficiency- kwashiorker disease resulting in edema Anorexia nervosa- loss of apetite (young girls usually after puberty) Bulimia nervosa- (women) eating binges Successful parasite- live in host without causing harm Taeniasis- taenia saginata Enterobius vermicalaris- itching around anus Facilitated diffusion- carrier proteins, forms a water filled pore in the membrane CHAPTER 13 RESPIRATION Source of oxygen- respiratory media Air - 21% oxygen Water- 5% oxygen Gaurd cells have chloroplast Photorespiration occurs in wheat rice sugarcane Organelles involved in photorespiration are motochondria, chloroplast and peroxisome Serine is an aminoacid Cockroach - tracheal system , 10 pairs of spiracles (2 in thoracic and 8 in abdomen), spiracles are operated by valves Gill contains two rows of hundreds of filaments Counter current flow enables 80-90% uptake of oxygen Frog uses negative pressure breathing, it has incomplete ventilation Birds have membranous channels parabronchi , complete ventilation , takes two breaths to move air completely Frog positive pressure Lungs Right lung divided in 3 lobes Left in two lobes Left contains cardiac notch Right weighs 700g Left weighs 625g Lungs are enclosed by pleural membrane Alveolus has a slightly larger diameter than capillaries Surfactant reduces internal surface tension Both lungs contain about 700 million alveoli Man uses negative pressure breathing Inhalation - active process Exhalation- passive process Inspiration External intercostal muscles contract Diaphragm contracts and becomes flat Internal intercostal muscles relax Expiration External intercostal muscles relax Internal intercostal contract Diaphragm relaxes and becomes dome shaped Lung cancer- loss of cilia of epithelial cells Emphysema- alveloi detoriate Blood takes in oxygen more rapidly than water Rate of breathing is monitored by Aortic and carotid bodies and medulla oblongata Total lung capacity- 5 litre Tidal- 0.5litre Vital- 4 litre Residual- 1 litre Myoglobin binds more tightly to oxygen than haemoglobin Co2 transport 35% by heamoglobin 60% by water of rbc (K) 5% by water of plasma (Na) Enzyme- carbonic anhydrase CHAPTER14 TRANSPORT Phloem loading- active transport Starch, gum, cellulose, protoplasm, proteins- great affinity for water, hydrophilic 1MPa= 9.87 atm Values of water potential are negative Water potential= solute potential + pressure potential Cell to cell- cellular pathway Plasmodesmata- symplast Extra cellular pathway- apoplast Xylem and phloem- complex tissues Rate of flow of water vessels is 10 times that of tracheids Ascent of sap- 15m/hr Root pressure- stephen hales 1727 Root pressure causes guttation Adhesion- molecules to water Cohesion- molecules together Ascent of sap- solar powered Gaurd cells have chloroplast Sucrose- synthesized in cytosol of mesophyll cells Phloem loading- short distance Phloem unloading- long distance Water movement in translocation- by pressure gradient Open type circulatory system- Arthropods, Molluscs and Tunicates Cockroach- dorsal vessel - forward Earthworm- dorsal - forward - ventral- backward Pyrogens are released by WBC, lymphocytes, infected cells, infecting agents In reptiles, crocodile has 4 chambered heart Blood - connective tissue Red corpuscles- biconcave Granulocytes 72%- neutrophils(70%), eosinophils(1.5%), and basophils(0.5%) Agranulocytes(28%)- monocytes(4%) , lymphocytes(24%) Neutrophils and monocytes- phagocytic Lymhocytes, eosinophils , basophils produce antitoxin, histamine and heparin Haemopoietic- give rise to blood vessels Thalassaemia- hypochromic anaemia(blood cells are paler than normal), enlargement of kidney Left ventricle has more muscular walls Heart muscles are myogenic- contract without external stimulation Resting phase- Diastole Contracting phase- Systole The volume of blood pumped per minute by left ventricle into the systemic circuit is called cardiac output Ventricular systole- LUB Ventricular diastole- DUP One complete heart beat lasts for about 0.8 seconds Heart murmur- defect in valves SA node- close to the point of entry of superior vena cava, it is a vestige of sinus venosus Delay of about 0.15 sec from conduction of impulse to AV node from SA node Blue babies- cyanosis Blood pressure is determined partly by cardiac output and partly by diameter of arterioles Largest lymph vessel- thoracic duct Lymph- means of exchange between blood and body cells Accumulation of lymph- edema Hypertension- silent killer Paralysis of one side of the body- hemiplegia Escape of blood from vessel walls- haemorrhage Massive accumulation of blood within a tissue- haematoma Monocyte develop into macrophages Basophils and mast cells release- histamine BIO 2 HOMEODTASIS Neurospora- pink bread mold Hagfish- isotonic Rectal glands- salt excreting glands Marine animals retain trimethylamine oxide in their bodies for protection against urea Kangaroo rat survives without drinking water by feeding on seeds of desert plants containing more carbs which produce water of metabolism Terrestrial animals can tolerate dehydration, known as anhydrobiosis The falling of yellow leaves in autumn is seasonal time for plants to get rid of accumulated wastes, for this reason leaves are called excretophores Creatine or trimethylamine oxide 500ml water- 1g Nh3, ammonotelic 50ml water- 1g urea, uriotelic 1ml water- 1g uric acid, uricotelic Cockroach- excretory system associated with digestive system Source of wastes: Urea- metabolism of amino acids Creatinine- muscle creatine Uric acid- from nucleic acid Sweat- sweat glands Sebum(protection against microorganism)- sebaceous gland Kidneys recieve 20% of blood with each cardiac beat Filtrate in bowman's capsule- glomerular filtrate which contains glucose aminoacids etc. Renal failure- high blood pressure , anaemia High degree renal failure- uremia Plumage in birds- physiological adaptation Sweat glands, fat layer- structural adaptation Marine animals have a very thick layer of fat called "blubber" under their skin Panting- evaporative cooling in respiratory tract in dogs Bats use saliva and urine for evaporative cooling SUPPORT AND MOVEMENY Collenchymatous cells- support to baby plants Sclerenchymatous cells- adult plants Collenchyma- heavily lignified cells in cortex, have angular thickening in pri wall Sclerenchyma- heavily lignified cells in xylem tissues Turgor pressure generated by high osmotic pressure of cell vacuole Fibres- tracheids Vessels- tracheae Sec xylem- increase in stem thickness Active portion of xylem- sap wood Nonconducting portion- heart wood, provide a resistance to decay and insect attack (red cedars, conifers) Commercial cork- Quercus suber Autonomic - internal Paratonic- external Cyclosis- passive movement [ Pulvinus-is swollen portion of petiole, place of attachment of leaf with the shoot Mimosa- 10min to regain turgor Epinasty, hyponasty- leaves, petals Auxin inhibit growth of root cells and stimulate growth of stem cells Epinasty- auxin Hyponasty- gibberellin Contraction of circular muscles- elongate Contraction of longitudinal muscles- shorten Cuticle- outermost layer is epicuticle, below it is procuticle which contains bulk of exoskeleton Molluscan shell can grow Exoskeleton contains sensory receptors called sensilla Ecdysis is controlled by hormone ecdysone Bone a store for Ca, P, Na and K Bone marrow- connective tissue Bone- most rigid form of connective tissue Bone forming cells- osteoblast Mature bone cells- osteocyte Bone dissolving cells- osteoclast As bones grow osteoblast are trapped within Hyaline cartilage- movable joint Elastic cartilage- pinna of ear and epiglottis Vertebral column has 4 curvatures Chest cavity- semi vaccum chamber Radius and ulna at distal end form multistage joint Osteomalcia- soft bones Annulus fibrosus holds successive vertebra Healing time of fracture- 8-12 weeks Fibroblast and osteoblast construct bone after fracture Ligament- bone to bone Tendon- bone to muscle Hele - bright Zwishen- between Troponin is a three polypeptide complex Rigor mortis- after death- atp conc falls- bonds b/w actin and myosin cant be broken- body becomes stiff Complete immobilization of muscles- atrophy Cockroach- flight by postetior pair of wings The second cervical vertebra(axis) is modified in reptiles for rotational movement Birds passive flight- gliding- wings act as aerofils Active flight- flapping its wings Plants grown without light become long and fail to form chlorophyll- etiolated Galls are growths on plants induced by parasites RESPONSE AND CO-ORDINATION Gibberellin substitute for red light Ethene stimulates ripening of tomatoes and citrus fruits Pain receptors are 27 times more abundant than cold receptors Cold receptors are 10 times more than heat receptors 3 Na+ : 2 K+ In myelinated neurons impulse jumps from nod to node (node of ranvier) called as saltatory impulse Speed of nerve impulse - min 100m/s- max 120m/s Cerebellum is best developed in birds Gray matter- non myelinated neurons White matter- myelinated neurons Ganglia are conc of cell bodies of neuron Alzheimer- caused by high levels of aluminium Nicotine affects post synaptic membrane 20 endocrine glands LH called as ICSH in males Calcitonin is antagonistic to parathormone Cortisol- glucocorticoid Corticosterone- glucocorticoid and mineralocorticoid Aldosterone- mineralocorticoid Gsstrin- mucosa of pyloric region Progesterone suppresses ovulation Insulin- has immediate effect Plant behaviuor- innate Insight learning- Kohler, highest form of learning Habituation- simplest learning behaviour Sporogenesis- spore formation Diplohaplontic- alternate diploid sporophyte and haploid gametophyte Fruit development without fertilization- parthenocarpy, by auxin Auxin is necessary for fruit set- retention of ovary Pericarp- fruit wall Fruit ripening is often accompanied by a burst of respiratory activity called climacteric Photoperiodism- 1920 Garner and Allard Cocklebur - Xanthium henbane- Hyoscyamus niger Photomorphogenesis- light controlled development of form and structure P660---> P730 day P730---> P660 night REPRODUCTION Photosynthesis- only during day Respiration- day and night At dawn and dusk when light intensity is low the rate of photosynthesis and respiration may equal one another, At this point there is no net exchange of gases between atmosphere and leaves, this point is called as compensation point Plants split water as a source of hydrogen - Van Niel NADPH2 is the reducing power which alongwith ATP reduces CO2 to glucose Nadph2 provides electrons and Atp provides chem energy Each mesophyll cell- 20-100 chloroplasts Enzymes are present in stroma Visible light- 380-750 nm Specteophotometer- measure relative abilities of diff pigments to absorb diff wavelengths of light Carotenes- red to orange Xantophylls- yellow to orange Phytol C20H39 Chlorophyll a - most imp and abundant pigment Carotenoids protect chlorophyll from intense light These may also be present in our eyes Absorption is max at red and blue parts of spectrum , at 670nm and 430nm respectively When equal intensities of light are given there is more photosynthesis in red than in blue part of spectrum Stomatal opening is due to biological clock No of stomata is directly proportional to amount of gas diffusing in leaves Vernalization- 4°C temp most effective, vernalin hormone Egg without fertilization- parthenogenesis In male honey bees(drones) sperms are produced by mitosis Aphids- diploid parthenogenesis Cloning- subculturing Identical twins- asexually Fraternal- sexually ""Duckbill platypus and spiny ant eater are ovioviviparous"" Sertoli cells - FSH and testosterone (if both not mentioned then best opt is FSH), provide liquid medium protection and nourishment to sperms. Second meiotic division in oocyte goes as far as metaphase but is not completed until oocyte is fertilized by sperm Fertilization- proximal part of oviduct Follicle breakdown process is called follicle atresia Organ formation begins- 12th week of pregnancy Avg blood loss during after birth bleeding- 350cm3 Neisseria gonorrhea- gram positive GROWTH AND DEVELOPMENT Growth pattern in plant- open growth Intercalary meristem- imp role in production of leaves and flower Lateral meristems- cylinders of dividing cells Elongation- volume increases upto 150 fold by uptake of water Max growth- 25-30 Min growth- 5-10 Red light- elongation Blue light- division Indole 3 acetic acid- causes elongation Root primordia develop from root cambium called pericycle Auxin- apical dominance Cytokinin- lateral dominance Shell gland present in uterus The discoidal cap of cells above blastocoele- blastoderm Hensen's node- dorsal mesoderm Somites - 25-26 hr embryo Neurulation- 24 hours Gray crescent is pigment free area that appears at ths time of fertilization Cytoplasmic determinants- blastomeres Fertilized egg of ascidian- 5 diff colours in cytoplasm Acetabularia- multicellular alga Maintaining ideal weight can prolong life span by 11 years Avg human life span - 120-125 years In flatworms, planaria - neoblasts (unspecialized cells) differentiate into specialized cells when it is amputed from somewhere Environmental factors contributing to abnormal development- teratogens A typical chromosome contains about 1.4×10^8 nucleotides (140 million) Friedrich Miescher discvered nuclein (nucleic acid) Basic structure of nucleic acid- P A levene Phosphodiester bond- P-O-C The base pairs are apart as a result of hyperphobic interactions Primer- about 10 nucleotides Replication is always 5' - 3' Okazaki fragments 100-200 nucleotides in eukaryotes 1000-2000 nuckeotides in prokaryotes Minimal medium- sugar aminoacids salts few vitamins and water Sickle cell anaemia- Vernon Ingram 1956 1953- Friedrick sanger - nucleotide sequence of insulin Template or antisense Coding or sense Rna polymerase. 1 - rRna " " 2- mRna " " 3- tRna Mutations - raw material for evolution Point mutation- sickle cell anaemia and phenylketonuria Nerve cells and cells of lens do not divide Yeast cell - 90mins Length of chromosome- 0.25-0.5 micrometer during prophase Centromere- primary constriction Anaphase- most critical phase of mitosis Unwanted clone of cells- tumor Spread of tumor and establishment of sec areas of growth- metastasis Cancer cells- high nucleus to cytoplasm ratio Cancer results from accumulation of 3-20 mutations ""Interphase of meiosis lacks G2 stage"" Down's syndrome Teenage mother - one in many thousands Forty years old- 1 in 100 Forty five- 1 in 30 Honey bee 32 chromosomes Mouse 40 chromosmes Cell death also controls the number of neurons bcz most die during development Survival signals - trophic factors Apoptosis- dropping off or falling off Hydrogenation- sabatier sendern's reaction Hydrogenolysis- hydrogenation accompanied by bond cleavage ECOSYSTEM Ecology- Ernest Hackle 1869 Eustary- river meets sea Ecosystem- Tansely 1935 Light is in the form of radiant energy Wind moves from pole to equator Fire - pyrophilus fungi(mostly ascomycetes) Surface texture- topography Soil factors- edaphic Soil study- pedology Soil formation- pedogenesis Parasites- regulate the population of plants and animals Orchids, mosses- epiphytes- An epiphyte is an organism that grows on the surface of a plant and derives its moisture and nutrients from the air, rain, water or from debris accumulating around it. Hult- succession- 1885 Whole sequence- sere Individual- seral stage Ozone- 4×10^-6% in air Macro nutrients- operation of ecosystem Micro nutrients- build protoplasm Nelumbium- Lotus Eichornia- water hycanith Generally sea- 3.5% salt Red sea- 4.6% salt Baltic sea- 1.2% Onycophora- link between Annelida and Arthropoda Taiga- Taiga is the Russian word for forest and is the largest biome in the world. The taiga is located near the top of the world, just below the tundra biome. The winters in the taiga are very cold with only snowfall. Tropical rain forest- 2000mm rainfall, temp 28°C Coniferous forests- plants belonging to gymnosperm group, pine fir spruce are dominant species Temperate deciduos forest- forests of temperate region, shed off their leaves during winter season, avg rainfall- 100cM Grassland- 19% of Earth, rainfall- 30-75cm, bread basket of the world Savannah- semi forest grasslands of tropical region, rainfall 125cm, dry season long, temp 18°C Deserts- rainfall below 25cm, 17% of Earth, Sahara hot, Gobi and Idaho cold, Thar desert in balochistan is called as Thal, temp reaches upto 55°C Tundra- Arctic- high latitude, sub soil frozen upto 25-90cm termed as perma frost Apline- high altitude, wond velocity 160km/hr, lack trees bit have no perma frost Temp -57° to 10° Shortest food chain- loose little energy Food web- provides stability CHEMISTRY1 Standard temp = 0°C or 273K Standard pressure= 1atm or 760mm of Hg One ounce mole of any gas at standard temp and pressure occupies a volume of 22.4 cubic feet Log 1000 =3 100= 2 10= 1 1=0.000 0.1= -1 0.01= -2 0.001= -3 10^2.4362= 273 Log 273= 2.4362 Antilog of 5.4060= 25470 Antilog 0.4060= 254200 Antilog 0.2290= 1.694 Vapour pressure of H2O 20- 17.5 torr 40- 55.3 torr 95- 634 torr 100- 760 torr Atm pressure kam bp kam Liquid + impurity= bp inc Solid + impurity= mp dec Sublimating solids Camphor, iodine, solid CO2, napthalene Max attraction= min energy CaCO3 Calcite- trigonal Aragonite- orthorhombic Trigonal also called as rhombohedral KNO3 Orthorhombic Trigonal CuSO4.5H2O Monoclinic Triclinic Thermal velocity- 10^6 Drift velocity- 10^-2 Density and pressure are ratios of two extensive properties and themselves are intensive properties Activation energy of CO > Activation energy of NO Order of ionic reac= 10^-6 sec Food is kept safe by freezing 5 C - few days -5 - -2C - few weeks -18C- months Phosgene- COCl2 Phosphine- PH3 ATOMIC STRUCTURE Electron discovered by Faraday named by Stoney(1891) Work on passage of electricity through gases was initiated by Hienrich Giessler and later extended by Crookes Pressure and phenomenon 1cm of Hg- spark Few mm of Hg- electrodes glow 1mm of Hg- positive electrode glowing 0.001mm of Hg- walls of the tube glow Cathode rays are independent of the gas filled in the tube and nature of material of electrodes Protons- Goldstein J.J.thomson doscovered that e/m value of proton is dependent on gas filled Proton has mass that is 1836 times that of electron Pitchblende- urainite mineral of uranium, emitted Beta rays Radioactivity- Henry Becquerel Pierre and Marie Curie isolated radium from the mineral Units- curie, becquerel The emiusion of radiation continues until formation of lead as end product Alpha rays- 1-2 cm in air Beta rays- 1-2 m in air Gamma rays- 15-20 cm of lead Chadwick- neutron Spectroscopic experiments- investigate electomagnetic radiation emitted pr absorbed by a substance Amount of energy depends on frequency of radiation 0 1 J= 10^7 ergs Sunlight, incandescent lamp- continuous spectrum Deviation of light is inversely proportional to wavelength ie least deviation red which has max wavelength and violet most deviated having min wavelength Light of single wavelength is called monochro0matic Colour of neon lamps- red Sodium lamps- yellow Line spectrum- fingerprints of elements Rutherford bombarded alpha particles emitted from "POLONIUM" on thin gold foil W. Roengten- 1895 - X rays Wavelength of x ray emitted from anode decreased regularly with increasing atomic mass Rutherford's theory was supported by Moseley's exp Momentum × circumference also called action is equal to planck's constant mv × 2πr = h r= n2 r= 1/z2 Energy of electron at infinity- zero E= 1/n2 E= z2 Wave number- waves per unit distance Wave number= 1/lambda First spectral series to be discovered was balmer series in 1885 Lyman- ultraviolet Paschen- infrared Brackett- far infrared Pfund- far infrared Electrons have dual nature particle and wave Bohr's theory was not supported by Heisenberg's uncertainty principle If one thing was known exactly then the uncertainty in its determination becomes zero.and that of the other becomes infinite S- sharp P- principle D- diffuse F- fundamental Schrodinger- 1926 calc the probability of locating the electron Orbitals- likelihood of finding e is max Principal quantum- size Azimuthal- shape Principal + azimuthal- energy Magnetic- orientation Spin- spin of e Probability of finding e at nodal plane- 0 No of electrons in a shell- 2n^2 No of subshells in a shell - n Orbitals in subshell- 2l + 1 No of orbitals in a shell- n^2 No of e in subshell- 2(2l + 1) Radius of Na- 1.57 Na+= 0.95 Cl= 0.99 Cl- = 1.81 Mg ++ = 0.65 Al +++= 0.5 Ions with same electronic configuration are called isoelectronic Is me add karlo 0.9- 17% 1.7- 51% Electron affinity- mostly exothermic but grp II A and N have endothermic values Ea of O and S First is exo Second is endo Highest en= F 4.0 Lowest en= Cs 0.7 En diff < 1.7 = covalent En diff > 1.7 = ionic 0.4= non polar covalent 0.4 onwards polar covalent CHEMICAL BONDING Colligative properties- depend on number of particles Electrolytic solution- mechanical mixture of solvent molecules and ions Ions are free to move like isolated atoms 1°C rise in temp increases conductance by 2 - 2.5% In galvanic cell Cathode is positive Anode is negative Generally reverse hota hai On increasing pressure to 2000 atm the conductance of acetic acid falls to 0.6% of its original value Diff of potential created between metal and solution of its salt is called Electrode potential of metak *metal No compound is completely ionic Molecules are more stable than atoms Ionic bond- W. Kossel Covalent bond- G. N. Lewis Diff of E.N > 1.7 - ionic bond NaCl- lattice in which each ion is surrounded by 6 other ions MgCl2.6H2O- Mg is surrounded by 6 water molecules in octahedral fashion CuCl2.4H2O- Cu surrounded by 4 water molecules in square planar form Separate units of ionic compound do not exist Insoluble ionic conpounds- sulphates phosphates and flourides of Ca, Ba and Sr Electrons shared between two atoms are bonding electrons Bond distance is inversely proportional to bond energy and to bond strength Covalent compounds exist as distinct particles Sidgwick- Dative bond, coordinate covalent, coionic The tendency of polar molecule(dipole) to become oriented in electric field- dipole moment 1C= 2.998×10^9esu Dipole moments are of order 10^-30 Cm Diff of EN is directly proportional to polarity H-F bond is 64% ionic H-Cl bond is 17% ionic Breaking of bonds- endothermic Making of bonds- exothermic Heitler, London- 1927 valence bond theory 1930's - hund , huckle, mulliken - molecular orbital theory Atomic orbital- influenced by one nucleus- momocentric Molecular orbital- more than one nucleus- polycentric High e density- lower energy- greater stability- bonding molecular orbital Low e density- higer energy- less stability- antibonding molecular orbital Sigma bond - linearly symmetrical S-orbital- spherical charge distribution P-orbital- directional charge distribution s-sbond pair- bond pair Pi electrons not considered as active set Lone pair- non bonding orbital Atoms of Grp V and VI- such as sulphur and phosphorous do not use sp3 hybridization instead use p orbitals at right angles and form compounds with bond angle 90° Hydrogen bond- secondary bond- protonic bridge Along the period increases down the group decreases HF- 41.8 NH3- 8.4 H2O- 29.4 Highest extent of forming H bonds- H2O Max tendency to form H-bonds- HF More no of H-bonds- H2O 4°C- water has maximum density 0-4- water contracts 4-0- water expands Size of nucleus- 10^-14m Size of atom- 10^-10m PERIODIC TABLE_____________________________________________________ 1829 J W Dobereiner Triads Li, Na, K Cl, Br, I Ca, Sr, Ba Newland- octaves 1864-69 Lother Meyer 1864 extension in 1869, arranged 56 elements, y axis- volume x axis- atomic weight Peak- alkali metals Ascending order- halogen Descending order- alkaline earth metals Range of weights of first transition series 400-650 Mendeleev 1869 Extension of newland's law Eka Boron- Scandium Eka Aluminium- Gallium Eka Silicon- Germanium Period 1 - 2 elements 8 8 18 18 32 7 incomplete 4 series of transition- 4th is incomplete Lanthanides - Ce to Lu (58-71) Actinides- Ac to Lr (89-103) Hydrogen does not exist as H+ in solution but exists as H3O+ Purest method for hydrogen- electrolysis Action of steam on coal- total temp 1500°C Separating hydrogen from water gas Bosch process impure Liquefication and treatment with NaOH- pure method CO2= -200°C liquefication temp N= -196°C liquefication temp H= -252°C liquefication temp Hydrogen torch- 4000-5000°C Stadium lamps- tungsten hexaflouride Stability of ionic hydrides towards heat decreases with increasing atomic mass CaH2- is used to prepare hydrogen 3 and 4 A are neutral hydrides A are basic and 7 A are acidic Acidic strength increases from top to bottom Isotopes were discovered by J.J.Thomson Tritium half life 12.5 years Alkaline earth metal hydroxides are sparingly soluble in water Be gives many covalent compounds Voltaic cells- solvent is water S BLOCK ELEMENTS Lithium sodium and potassium are less denser than water Alkali metals- body centered cubic structure Reactivity increases down the group Cs is the most reactive Be does not form nitride Lithium, Be, Mg, Ca - normal oxide Sodium,Sr, Ba- peroxide Super oxide- K, Rb, Cs Be and Mg form protective covering and are protected from extensive corrosion by water Sodium and potassium are most abundant in nature Down process- cathode anode carbon Alumina mp- 2057°C ""Carnalite MgCl2.KCl.6H2O also an ore of potassium- HEC TEST PHASE 2 "" Magnesite- MgCO3 Dolomite- MgCO3.CaCO3 CaF2 lowers the mp of CaCl2 Barytes BaSO4 Whiterite BaCO3 Ppt of solvay process- NaHCO3(baking soda) Na2CO3- soda ash Na2CO3.10H2O- washing soda, water softener CaO- quick lime Castner Kellner Anode titanium Cathode mercury Hydrogen is easily liberated over graphite surphace Castner Kellner is being replaced by Gibb's Diaphragm NaOH- deliquescent solid Kiesirite- MgSO4.H2O Epsom- MgSO4.7H2O CaSO4- permanent hardness in water Gypsum CaSO4.2H2O At 100°C- forms CaSO4.1/2H2O plaster of paris Prof Odling - formula of bleaching powder- CaOCl2 Slaked lime- Ca(OH)2 30 elements in p block 10 metals 20 non metals 1 liquid 9 gases 20 solids P-BLOCK ELEMENTS____________________________________________________________ Boron is a metalloid Metallic character of Al is greater than B Borax, suhaga, tincal, sodium tetraborate decahydrate- Na2B4O7.10H2O Boric acid- monobasic At 100 metaboric At 140 pyroboric Above 240 boron triide Inter layer distance in boric acid- 3.18 Coelomanite- Ca2B6O11.5H2O Occurrence Oxygen Silicon Aluminium Halls - Fe2O3 and Silica Serpek- silica Baeyer- Fe2O3 NaAlO2 is heated at 50-60 to obtain Al(OH)3 which os heated at 1500 to get Alumina Electrolysis of alumima Anode and cathode- carbon Cryolite lowers the mp Flourspar (CaF2 )increases the fluidity Al obtained is 99% pure And obtained by Hoopes process is 99.99% pure Al powder + Al(NO3)3 is ammonal Al bronze 10 Al and 90 Cu Duralumin 95 Al 4 Cu 0.5 Mg 0.5 Ni Al not affected by dry air Burns with brilliant white light Made passive by nitric acid Powerful reducing agent Thermite process -3500, used for welding X ray is used to distinguish between imitation and pure diamond Diamond bond energy 347 Kj/mol or 82.93 Kcal/mol Graphite- electrodes , moderator in nuclear reactor Interlayer distance of graphite 3.35 Bond energy 3.99 Kcal/mol or 16Kj/mol Triplumbic tetra oxide , lead sesquioxide, red lead Pb3O4 Lead monoxide litharge PbO PbCrO4 occurs in nature as crocoite Yellow PbO - massicot Red PbO- litharge or murda sang Nitric oxide NO Nitrous oxide N2O Nitrogen dioxide NO2 Nitrate NO3 HNO3 obtained by ostwalds method is 68% Fuming nitric acid- reddish yellow liquid Cu with conc HNO3 - NO2 Cu with dil HNO3- NO Mg with dil HNO3- N2O Zn with dil HNO3- NH4NO3 Dynamite- nitro glycerine in kieselghur Rhombic octahedral alpha sulphur, S-S bond angle 105 and distance 2.12 Monoclinic prismatic beta sulphur 95.5 transition temp Antimony trisulphide - Stibnite, pure H2S is prepared H2S is a strong reducing agent Molecule of HSH is non linear and angle is 92.2 and distance is 1.34 H2S2O7 - oleum H2SO4 - oil of vitriol Conc H2SO4- with Cu gives SO2 Zn with conc H2SO4 gives H2S Asbestos- Mg2CaSi4O12 Cl is a greenish yellow gas Cl does not readily react with N2, O2 and carbon Cl used for layer detection test of Br and I. Haematite, magnetite- iron ore Lead monoxide litharge PbO PbCrO4 occurs in nature as crocoite Yellow PbO - massicot Red PbO- litharge or murda sang Nitric oxide NO Nitrous oxide N2O Nitrogen dioxide NO2 Nitrate NO3 HNO3 obtained by ostwalds method is 68% Fuming nitric acid- reddish yellow liquid Cu with conc HNO3 - NO2 Cu with dil HNO3- NO Mg with dil HNO3- N2O Zn with dil HNO3- NH4NO3 Dynamite- nitro glycerine in kieselghur Rhombic octahedral alpha sulphur, S-S bond angle 105 and distance 2.12 Monoclinic prismatic beta sulphur 95.5 transition temp Antimony trisulphide - Stibnite, pure H2S is prepared H2S is a strong reducing agent Molecule of HSH is non linear and angle is 92.2 and distance is 1.34 H2S2O7 - oleum H2SO4 - oil of vitriol Conc H2SO4- with Cu gives SO2 Zn with conc H2SO4 gives H2S Asbestos- Mg2CaSi4O12 Cl is a greenish yellow gas Cl does not readily react with N2, O2 and carbon Cl used for layer detection test of Br and I. Wohler in 1828 prepared urea by boiling ammonium cynate with water Rubber was isolated in the form of latex from rubber plant D-BLOCK ELEMENTS Ligands are Lewis bases EDTA - hexadentate also called flexidentate- HEC PHASE 2 Copper pyrite- chaleopyrite- CuFeS2 Chalcocite- Cu2S Malachite - CuCO3.Cu(OH)2 green Azurite - 2CuCO3.Cu(OH)2 blue FeSiO3- slag Matte- Cu2S + FeS + SiO2 Roasted ore- Cu2S + FeO Main impurity in copper- iron Refining of copper- 1.3 Volts Silver nitrate or Lunar caustic AgNO3 0 Decomposes at 450°C into Ag, NO2 and O2 Ag2O- dark brown Produces white ppt with Cl Yellow with I Light yellow with Br Copper sulphate or Cupric sulphate- blue vitriol or blue stone At 230°C loses its water of crystallization Cuprous iodide Cu2I2 - white Cu(OH)2- pale blue- with ammonia [Cu(NH3)4]SO4 - deep blue- with excess ammonia Used in making green pigments K2CrO4- yellow CrO3- chromic oxide(red) CrO2Cl2- chromyl chloride (reddish brown) Potassium magnate- green colour Potassium permagnate- deep purple Corrosion Iron- brown flaky surface rust Copper- green coloured layer Zinc- white powder PREVENTION Galvanized iron - protective zinc coating Stainless steel- Fe, Cr and Ni Amalgam- alloy of tin and mercury Liebig in 1938- silvering of mirror Metal hydroquinone, pyrogallol- developer, reduces sensitized AgBr to Ag Na2S2O3.5H2O- hypo- fixer Antirusting agents Steel , iron-- dil sulphuric acid Copper, brass- ammonium chloride 30 elements in p block 10 metals 20 non metals 1 liquid 9 gases 20 solids Boron is a metalloid Metallic character of Al is greater than B Borax, suhaga, tincal, sodium tetraborate decahydrate- Na2B4O7.10H2O Boric acid- monobasic At 100 metaboric At 140 pyroboric Above 240 boron trioxide Inter layer distance in boric acid- 3.18 Coelomanite- Ca2B6O11.5H2O Occurrence Oxygen Silicon Aluminium Halls - Fe2O3 and Silica Serpek- silica Baeyer- Fe2O3 NaAlO2 is heated at 50-60 to obtain Al(OH)3 which os heated at 1500 to get Alumina Electrolysis of alumima Anode and cathode- carbon Cryolite lowers the mp Flourspar (CaF2 )increases the fluidity Al obtained is 99% pure And obtained by Hoopes process is 99.99% pure Al powder + Al(NO3)3 is ammonal Al bronze 10 Al and 90 Cu Duralumin 95 Al 4 Cu 0.5 Mg 0.5 Ni Al not affected by dry air Burns with brilliant white light Made passive by nitric acid Powerful reducing agent Thermite process -3500, used for welding X ray is used to distinguish between imitation and pure diamond Diamond bond energy 347 Kj/mol or 82.93 Kcal/mol Graphite- electrodes , moderator in nuclear reactor Interlayer distance of graphite 3.35 Bond energy 3.99 Kcal/mol or 16Kj/mol Triplumbic tetra oxide , lead sesquioxide, red lead Pb3O4 Earth's crust contains only 0.027% C Chromite (FeO.Cr2O3)- chromium ore Cr- 3d5, 4s1 (ground state) Cu- 3d10, 4s1 (ground state) Their compounds are ionic in their low oxidation states And covalent in their high oxidation states The bonding between ligand and metal ion is electrostatic Low energy t2g (trio) High energy eg (pair) E moves from lower energy set to higher energy set Cu absorbs red light and emits blue light Fe, Co, Ni are ferromagnetic Ni used for hydrogenation Fe in manufacture of NH3 V2O5 to convert SO2 into SO3 Interstitial TiH1.73 Brass Cu Zn Bronze Cu Zn Sn Silicon also has the ability to catenate INTRODUCTION TO ORGANIC CHEMISTRY____________________________________ Coal's best form- anthracite Bituminous coal- imp source of organic compounds Coke- reducing agent, used in steel amd iron industry Sui gas Methane - 94.60 Ethane- 1.05 Propane- 0.28 Butane- 0.17 Nitrogen- 3.88 Carbon dioxide- 0.02 Petroleum means rock oil in latin, called as crude oil C1-C4- natural gas , bottled gas, petrochemicals -- below 20 C5-C6- petroleum ether, solvents-- 20-60 C6-7- ligroin solvents (naptha)-- 60-120 C5-10- gasoline-- 40-200 C12-16 kerosene and jet fuel-- 175-325 C12- higher- gas oil, fuel oil, diesel oil-- 250-400 C20- higher- refine mineral/lubricating oil, grease-- non volatile liquids C20- higher- paraffin wax, asphalt, tar-- non volatile solids Alkanes Cn H2n + 2 Alkenes Cn H2n Alkynes Cn H2n-2 Cyclo alkanes Cn H2n Isomers C4- 2 C5- 3 C6- 5 C7- 9 C8- 18 C9- 35 C10- 75 Metamers are not formed for Carbon atoms below 4 Ester ketone ether form metamers Ch3OH- no isomers C2H5OH and CH3-O-CH3 sre isomers HCHO and CH3CHO form no isomers HCOOH forms no isomers CH3COOH(acetic acid) and HCOOCH3(methyl formate) are isomers Acetone - 10 isomers(chk) NHCOR- amide Bond energy is directly proportional to bond polarity whuch is dir pro to en diff in polar molecule Potassium chromate + acid---> potassium dichromate Colour changes from yellow to reddish orange Potassium dichromate + alkali----> potassium chromate Colour changes from reddish orange to yellow MnO4- ---> accepts 5e in acidic medium and forms Mn+2 MnO4- ----> accepts 3e in basic or neutral medium and forms MnO2 Jis par deposition karwani ho wo cathode aur jis ki karwani ho wo anode Methane C--H = 1.09A° Ethane C--C = 1.54A° C--H= 1.1A° Ethene C--C = 1.34A° C--H= 1.09A° Ethyne C--C = 1.20A° C--H= 1.09A° Benzene grp changes -- nucleophilic reaction Ring par reaction -- electrophilic Inductive reasoning -- specific to general Deductive reasoning -- general to specific Gram negative bacteria -- more resistant to antibiotics Hydroponics- soil less or water culture Interplanting also called as poly culture Vaccine- Edward Jennar 1795 Sin 30= 0.5 Sin 20= 0.3 Sin 10= 0.1 1u= 1.67×10^-27 kg 1kg= 6.02×10^26 u Covalent bond stores large amount of energy In amino acid R in glycine is H In serine is CH2OH In alanine is CH3 In valine is CH3-CH2-CH2 No of aminoacid= peptide linkage + 1 No of peptide linkage= no of aminoacid - 1 Primary structure= linear bond is peptide Sec= helix bond is hydrogen and sulphide Ter= 3D bonds are peptide, hydrogen, ionic and disulphide Quat= 4D bond is peptide Protein= 50% weight of cell Carbs= 1% by weight Wax contains one molecule of fatty acid Mineral oil is called petroleum when it is in refined form and when extracted is called as crude oil Paraffin mp 50-60 Fractional distillation of petroleum yields 20% gasoline Catalytic cracking- zeolite, silica and alumia temp 500 Steam cracking temp 900 Iso octane or 2,2,4- trimethyl pentane has been given octane number 100 2 benzene rings- napthalene 3 benzene rings- anthracene Alcohol or alkanol Simplest hydrocarbon to have structural isomers is butane Methane ethane propane- no isomerism Pentane has 3 isomers Electrolytic method- only symmetrical alkanes, methane cannot be orepared by this method From carbonyl compounds- Clemmensen or Wolf-Kishner's reduction C1-C4 = gases C5-C17= liquids C18-- = solids Bp increases by 20-30 for addition of every CH2 group Straight chane alkanes have higher bp than branched chain alkanes Burning of alkane in presence of oxygen- combustion In absence of oxygen- cracking Nitroalkanes are used as fuels, solvents Order if reactivity of halogen F>Cl>Br>I> CHEMISTRY OF HYDROCARBOM Methane used as illuminating gas, manufacture urea fertilizer Ease of dehydration of alcohols Ter(85°)>Sec(100°)>Pri(140-170°) Succinic acid is dicarbocxylic acid Quinoline (lindlar's catalyst) Trans alkene - Na/liquid Nh3 Order of reactivity of halogen acids HI>HBr>HCl Bromination of alkene, baeyers reagent test(1% KMnO4) - test for detection of double bond Epioxides- starting materials for production of glycols Reduction of ozonides- ketones and aldehydes Ozonolysis used to detect position of double bond Polymerization - good catalysts- aluminium triethyl and titanium tetrachloride Ethene- artificial ripening of fruits Mustard gas is a liquid Vesicant - causing blisters Glycols are used as antifreeze Ethyne- garlic like odour Reactivity Ethene>ethyne>ethane Vinyl alcohol- unstable enol Ethyne gives aldehyde with water Rest all alkynes give ketones Isolated benzene rings Biphenyl , diphenyl methane Fused rings Napthalene, phenathrene, anthracene Order of priority in naming benzene Cooh , cn, cho, coch3, oh, nh2, or, r C-C= 1.39 C-H= 1.09 150.5KJ/mol or 36Kcal/mol = resonance energy Ethyne - organo nickel catalyst 70°- benzene Subsititution of halogen in benzene requires iron or corresponding ferric halide as catalyst Nitration 1:1 ratio of h2so4 and hno3 Combustion of one mole of bezene requires 7.5moles of O2 On ozonolysis benzene gives glyoxal Side chain oxidation by KMnO4 of benzene - test for alkyl benzenes Chance basis 40% ortho, 40% meta, 20% para Density H2O>air>methane Oxidation Alkane--> Alcohol--> Aldehyde--> carboxylic acid Alkanes- Paraffins Alkenes- Olefins Ethene undergoes electrophilic addition Raney nickle Nickle/Aluminium Alloy + NaOH Ethene + H2SO4(cold conc)--> Ethyl alcohol Mustard gas- S2Cl2 is actually a liquid β,β- dichloro diethyl sulphide Ethyne explodes on compression to a liquid Oxyacetylene flame - 3000°C Benzene causes blood cancer Chlorination of benzene catalyst- iron or fecl3 Benzene undergoes electrophilic substitution ALKYL HALIDE Alkyl halide by halogen in presence of catalyst ZnCl2 Alkyl halide by SoCl2 in presence of pyridine Alkyl iodides cannot be prepared by direct iodination Order of reactivity of alkyl halides RI>RBr>RCl>RF Nucleophile- nucleus loving Electrophile- electron loving Electrophile can be neutral or positively charged Cl Br I HSO4 are good leaving groups Iodide is a good nucleophile and a good leaving group Sn2 and E2 Bimolecular Second order kinetics No solvent necessary Primary always follow this Rate depends on both nucleophile and substrate alkyl halide Requires strong nucleophile and a good leaving group Sn1 and E1 Unimolecular First order kinetics Solvent required(aqueous acetone or alcohol) Ion formation occurs Carbocation is intermediate Rate depends on substrate only Weak nucleophile may also suffice Tertiary always follow sn1 Sec in polar medium follow sn1 and e1 and in non polar medium follow sn2 and e2 Wurtz reaction- symmetrical alkanes Tetramethyl lead and tetraethyl lead- good antiknock agents and used in gasoline Reactivity of alkyl halide with Mg RI>RBr>RCl And for a given halogen CH3X>C2H5X>C3H7X In grignard reagent carbon has a negative charge therefore electrophiles attack and nature of reaction is electrophilic Most reactions of grignard reagent are exothermic CN-CL cyanogen chloride With CO2 - carboxylic acid With formaldehyde- primary alcohol Any other aldehyde- sec alcohol Ketone- ter alcohol With Epoxide- Alcohol(chk) Alcohol phenol ether are considered derivatives of water Ethanols structure resembles to water Ethane diol - glycol Propanetriol- glycerol 2 hydroxy propanoic acid - lactic acid 2,3 di hydroxy butane 1 4 dioic acid- tartatic acid Yeast 14 enzymes Optimum temp for fermentation 25-35 Alcohol obtained by fermentation is 12% and never exceeds 15% C-O bond break - nucleophilic O-H bond break- electrophilic Order for nucleophilic reaction Ter>sec>pri Order for electrophilic Methyl>pri>sec>ter Ocidation of alcohol- ketones and aldehydes Ter alcohols are resistant to oxidation and undergo elimination but acc to sindh book they undergo ocidation and give ketones Pri sec and ter alcohols are distinguished by lucas test Ter forms oil layer immediately Sec after 5-10 mins Pri forms on heating CHAPTER#9 Methanol- antifreeze Ethanol- fuel substitute, preservation of biological specimen Phenol - coaltar - runge 1834 Phenol is a colourless crystalline deliquescent solid Used as disinfectant Phenols are less reactive to nucleophiles as OH is a poor leaving group Acidic character COOH>Phenol>water>Alcohol Ka=1.3*10^-10 Ph 5 6 Trinitro phenol - picric acid. It is a phenol which behaves like an acid. Phenol test- reaction with bromine - white ppt Alkoxide ion is a strong nucleophile Ethers are volatile liquids Ethers are relatively inert. They do not react with dilute acids alkalies ammonia metallic sodium etc. They do react with hot PCl5 to give alkyl halide. Aldehyde present in most sugars Ketone is present in camphor and menthone Catalyst for industrial preparation of formaldehyde- plaitinised asbestos or copper or silver catalyst Formalin- 40% formaldehyde, 8%methyl alcohol and 52% water Oxidation of ethene in presence of palladium chloride with cupric chloride as promoter gives acetaldehyde Nucleophilic addition reactions occur in ald and ket Base catalyzed- increases the nucleophilic character, strong nucleophile Acid catalyzed- promotes nucleophilic attack by increasing electrophilic character Reac with bisulphite- used for separation and purification of carbonyl compounds Ketones in which both alkyl groups are larger than methyl do not react with sodium bisulphite Canizzaro Formation of alcohol is reduction And formation of salt is oxidation (chk) Acetaldehyde and methyl ketones react with halogen in presence of NaOH to give haloform. Ethanol is the only pri alcohol to give this reac. Sec alcohol containing OH group on C no 2 undergo haloform reaction Identification of ald and ket- 2 4 DNPH Aldehydes are reduced to pri alcohols and ketones to sec alcohols Ald and ket on oxidation give carboxylic acid Aldehydes do not give sodium nitroprusside test Formaldehyde- used in processing of polio vaccine Ethanedioic acid - oxalic acid Propanedioic acid- malonic acid 1,2 benzene dicarboxylic acid Pthalic acid 1,4 benzene dicarboxylic acid Terpthalic acid Irritation due to ant bite - formic acid Alkenes when heated with alkaline KMnO4 form carboxylic acids Formic , aceic, propionic - pungent smell Butyric, valeric, caproic- unpleasant smell Carboxylic acids exist as cyclic dimers Mp of carboxylic acids with even no of C atoms are higher than the next lower and higher member with odd number of C atoms The OH group can be replaced by X OR and NH2 Characteristic reaction - nucleophilic substitution (chk) Esters have fruity smells and are used for artificial flavours Amylacetate- banana Isobutyl formate-raspberry Benzylacetate- jasmine Ethyl butyrate- pineapple Amyl butyrate- apricot Octyl acetate- orange Carboxylic acid reduction with LiAlH4 produces alcohols COOH on reduction with HI and red Phosphorous gives alkanes The pure acetic acid freezes to an ice like solid at 17°C therefore called as glacial acetic acid Used as local irritant CHAPTER 10 ORGANIC Twenty aminoacids req by body- our body can synthesize only ten Glycine- named cause of sweet taste Tyrosine- first isolated from cheese Neutral Glycine Alanine Valine Proline Acidic Aspartic Glutamic Basic Lysine Histidine The dipolar structure of aminoacid is also called internal salt Strecker synthesis HCN added to aldehyde in presence of NH3 yields alpha aminoacid Aminoacids react with nitrous acid to produce alpha hydroxy carboxylic acid Peptide having molecular mass upto 10000 is called polyoeptide While having more than 10000 is a protein Aliphatic carboxylic acids are also called fatty acids. Ether and alcohol are interconvertible Ester and Carboxylic acid are interconvertible Aldehyde and ketone are Soda lime- NaOH + CaO RSH- thioalcohols or mercaptans Species with positive charge on carbon- carbonium ion Mechanism of elimination- Hughes and Ingold (1941) Ph above 10 or below 3 is sterile Chile saltpeter NaNO3 Triple phosphate contains P2O5 about 48% which is thrice of what is present in super phosphate Carboxylic acid ke Ca aur Mg salts are insoluble in water Glass is prepared at 1400°C Ordinary glass - sodium and calcium silicates Refractory potassium glass - K2CO3 Pyrex- borosilicate Coefficient of expansion- inversely proportional to expansion CuO- light blue CoO- dark blue Cr2O3- green SeO and ZnO- red Rayon- chardonnet 1884 Sodium cellulose xanthate- viscose rayon Both monomers diff- copolymer ""1,4 benzene dicarboxylic acid- terephthalic acid 1,2 benzene dicarboxylic acid - phthalic acid Both are isomers "" Polypropylene is superior to polyethene in its resistance to breakage and temperature Plasticizer- reduces brittleness and improves eleasticity Diastase- in malt Ethanol bp- 78.5 Molasses- thick brown dark coloured syrup left after isolation of cane sugar Ethanol structure resembles t

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