BIO 189 Midterm Exam Study Guide PDF

BIO 189 Midterm Study Guide It is recommended that you review this study guide to prepare for your midterm in the next module. The midterm covers learning concepts in Modules 1-3 (Chapters 1-4 and Chapter 6 in Biology Today and Tomorrow with Physiology (6th ed.). As a reminder, you can access t...

BIO 189 Midterm Study Guide It is recommended that you review this study guide to prepare for your midterm in the next module. The midterm covers learning concepts in Modules 1-3 (Chapters 1-4 and Chapter 6 in Biology Today and Tomorrow with Physiology (6th ed.). As a reminder, you can access the readings through the Read section of each module. Note: Specific topics can be searched within the eBook by utilizing the search bar located in the upper right-hand corner of the screen. Key Terms – Chapter 1 animals development Independent variable prediction species archaea DNA law of nature probability statistically significant atom ecosystem model producer taxon bacteria Eukaryotes molecule prokaryotes taxonomy biology experiment nutrient protist tissue biosphere experimental group organ pseudoscience traits cell fungi organism reproduction variable Community genus organ system sampling error consumer growth photosynthesis science control group homeostasis plants scientific method data hypothesis population scientific theory Explain biology as a process of scientific discovery ○ What is the study of life? What is pseudoscience? Describe some examples of each. Biology. Pseudoscience is ideas that cant be scientifically tested. For example astrology and flat earth theory. Determine the levels of organization of matter ○ What are each of the levels of organization? Atoms and molecules, cells, tissue, organs, organs systems, organism, population, community, ecosystem and biosphere. ○ Describe the differences between a population, community, and ecosystem. Population is a group of individuals from the same specie living in a determined area, community is all the population together in a determined area and ecosystem is the way community interacts with environment. Describe the underlying characteristics that unite all living things ○ What are the major principles of living things? Cellular Organization, Metabolism, Homeostasis, growth and development, responsiveness, reproduction and evolution. What is the difference between a producer and a consumer? Producer are living things that make their own food. Ex: plants through photosynthesis. Consumers are living things that need another resourcers to produce energy. Ex: animals that eat waste of other animals. What is homeostasis? ○ Homeostasis is the way living things keep their internal conditions stable, even when their outside environment changes. ○ How does energy move within an ecosystem? Is heat a usable energy source? Energy move in one way flow starting with producers, primary consumers, secondary consumers and decomposers. No, heat is not a usable energy source for most living things because it is just a waste product of their metabolic processes. ○ What is a nutrient? How do nutrients move within an ecosystem? A nutrient is a substance that provides the energy and materials necessary for an organism to live, grow, and function properly. Nutrients move in a cycle between living things and the non-living parts of the ecosystem. ○ What is the purpose of DNA? Do all living things contain DNA? The main purpose of DNA is to store genetic information and pass it on to offspring. Yes, all living things contain DNA. Even though prokaryotes (like bacteria) and eukaryotes (like plants and animals) are different in the way they store their DNA, both of them have it. Explain the taxonomic organization of the three domains of living things based on cellular structure: Archaea, Bacteria and Eukarya ○ What are characteristics of the three Domains? Archaea: Single-celled, found in extreme environments, unique cell structures Bacteria: Single-celled, diverse, simple cell structure Eukarya: Multicellular, complex, true nucleus ○ What are the characteristics of a prokaryotic cell? Prokaryotic cells don't have a nucleus to store their DNA. They are mainly bacteria, and also include archaea. Prokaryotes also lack membrane-bound organelles and have a simpler cellular structure compared to eukaryotic cells. ○ What are the characteristics of a eukaryotic cell? What components are found in both prokaryotes and eukaryotes? Eukaryotic cell has nucleus to store DNA. They also have another important components as ribosome, mitochondrion, golgi body, lysosome, rough ER, smooth ER, plasma membrane and cytoskeleton. In both we can find: ribosomes, DNA, cytoplasm and plasma membrane. What are the four main groups of eukaryotes? Animalia (animals), Plantae (plants), Fungi (fungus) and Protista The Linnaean System The Linnaean System is the hierarchical system of taxonomy developed by the Swedish naturalist Carl Linnaeus in the 18th century. How are species classified? What are the components of the scientific name? They are classified by taxonomy. Domain, kingdom, phylum, class, order, family, genus, species. What techniques to biologists use to determine the species of living things? What is the biological species concept? Techniques used are morphology, genetics, behavior, ecology and biochemistry. The biological concept are Reproductive isolation, gene flow and shared gene pool. Apply experimental design by analyzing the design components of experiments for cause and effect relationships ○ Describe the components of an experiment: Hyphotesis, Independent variables, dependent variables, control variables, experimental design, materials and methods, data collection, data analysis and conclusions. What is the difference between a hypothesis and a scientific theory? Hypothesis is some idea based on nature phenomena observation. Scientific theory is the hypothesis after the scientific experiment and approval of scientific community. What is a Control Group? A control group is a group in an experiment that does not receive the treatment or intervention being tested. What is an Experimental Group? An experimental group is the group in an experiment that receives the treatment or intervention being tested What is a dependent variable? What is an independent variable? The dependent variable is the thing that changes or responds as a result of the independent variable. The independent variable is the thing that the researcher changes or manipulates to see its effect on the dependent variable. Ex: Independent: is the amount of studying. Dependent: is the test scores. What is critical thinking? The act of evaluating information before accepting it. What is sampling error and how do scientists avoid this when developing an experiment? Difference between results obtained from a subset, and results obtained from the whole. Scientists use random sampling and larger sample sizes to avoid this problem and get accurate results. ? Explain pseudoscience. ▪ Compare and contrast what would be seen in natural science vs. pseudoscience. Natural science is everything that can be observed and tested. Pseudoscience is everything not based on scientific method for example, astrology, vaccines cause autism. Key Terms – Chapter 2 acid electron lipid bilayer polymer unsaturated fatty amino acid elements metabolism prion acid ATP fat monomers protein wax base fatty acid neutron protons buffer hydrogen bonds nucleic acid reactions carbohydrates hydrophilic nucleotide RNA cellulose hydrophobic nucleus saturated fat chemical bond ion organic saturated fatty acids compound ionic bond peptide bond steroids Denaturation isotopes pH triglyceride DNA lipid phospholipid unsaturated fat Identify the subatomic particles and their charges within an atom. ○ What is an element? What is an atom? What are the components of an atom? An element is the most basic type of matter that cannot be broken down into anything simpler by chemical means. An atom is the basic unit of life. The atoms components are: protons, neutrons and electrons. ○ What are the charges of a proton, neutron, and electron? Proton is positively charged Neutron is uncharged Electrons are negatively charged Examine the types of chemical bonds found within specific compounds ○ What does it mean when an atom is neutral? What does it mean when an atom is positively or negatively charged? Neutral: Equal number of protons and electrons. Positively: Lost electrons, so it has more protons than electrons, making it positively charged. Negatively: Gained extra electrons, so it has more electrons than protons, making it negatively charged. ○ What are chemical bonds? A strong attractive force between two atoms; links atoms in molecules. Correlate the use of buffers on acids and bases to manipulate the pH of solutions ○ What is the pH of a solution? What would cause the pH of a solution to become more acidic or basic? Measure of the amount of hydrogen ions in a fluid. If PH is more than 7 is considered basic and if is less than 7 is considered acid. ○ How does the H+ ion concentration affect the pH of a solution? The pH becomes more acidic when there are more hydrogen ions, and more basic when there are more hydroxide ions. ○ What are the pH ranges for an acidic, basic or neutral solution? 7 Basic Define organic molecules and explore the structures and functions of the molecules of life: carbohydrates, lipids, proteins, and nucleic acids ○ Describe the structure and function of Carbohydrates Carbohydrates are molecules made up of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen. Providing energy, Structural support, Storage, Cell signaling.  i. What are the monomers and polymers of carbohydrates? Monosaccharides and polysaccharides ii. What are some monosaccharide and polysaccharide examples? Monosaccharide: Glucose and fructose Polysaccharides: Starch iii. Describe the characteristics of the following polysaccharides: glycogen, cellulose, starch Glycogen are found in animals in the liver and muscles, knows for storage energy. Cellulose provides structural support and is found at cell wall in the plants and tissues. ○ Describe the structure and function of Lipids. i. What are the general properties of fatty acids? How do these properties contribute to the phospholipid bilayer? Fatty acids consists of a hydrophilic group head and a hydrophobic hydrocarbon tail. They take care of what comes in and out of the cell. The structure of fatty acids enables them to self-assemble into the cell membrane, which regulates the movement of substances across the cell. ii. What is the differences in structure and function of saturated and unsaturated fats? Saturated fat: One single bond link carbons on the tail Unsaturated fat: has one of more double bonds. iii. What are some food sources of saturated fats? What about unsaturated fats? Saturated: Meat and coconut oil Unsaturated fat: Olive oil and avocado What is the structure and function of a triglyceride? What is the major structure and function of a phospholipid? Triglyceride is a completely hydrophobic lipid with three tails derived from fatty acids. Phospholipids have a polar head and nonpolar tails and They form the phospholipid bilayer that makes up the cell membrane ○ Describe the structure and function of Proteins i. What are the monomers of proteins? What are the polymers of proteins? Amino acids, peptides and polypeptides. ii. What are the components of an amino acid? Which component determines the amino acid type? The components of an amino acid are the amine group, carboxyl group, hydrogen, The specific R group determines the type of amino acid. iii. What bonds are found between the amino acids within a polypeptide? Peptide bond iv. What is the function enzymes? Enzymes carry out reactions that collectively constitute a cell’s metabolism. ○ Describe the structure and function of Nucleic Acids i. What are the monomers of nucleic acids? ii. The monomers of nucleic acids are nucleotides. iii. What is the function of Nucleic Acids? Store genetic information, direct protein production, and control cellular activities. Key Terms – Chapter 3  adhesion protein cytoplasm fluid mosaic nuclear envelope biofilm cytoskeleton Golgi complex nucleus cell junctions cytosol intermediate filaments organelle cell theory Smooth endoplasmic lysosomes pili cell wall reticulum Rough microfilaments plasma membrane chloroplasts endoplasmic reticulum microtubules pseudopods cilia extracellular matrix mitochondria receptor proteins Cuticle flagella motor proteins ribosomes vesicles surface-to-volume ratio transport proteins Explain the cell theory ○ What are the components/principles of the cell theory? Is 4: All organisms consist of one or more cells; The cell is the basic unit of life; All cells come from division of preexisting cells; And all cells pass hereditary material (DNA) to offspring. ○ What kind of aspects will limit the size of the cell? How is the surface area and volume of the cell related? The size of a cell is limited by the need to maintain an adequate surface area for the cell's volume, as well as transport and structural support requirements. The surface area grows more slowly than the volume as the cell gets larger. ○ How did the microscope contribute to the development of the cell theory? The microscope was essential for allowing scientists to directly observe and study cells. Recognize the differences in structure and function of prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells ○ What components are found in all cell types? Plasma membrane, DNA, Ribosome and cytoplasma ○ What are some cellular structures shared by bacteria and eukarya? What are some cellular structures found in eukaryotic cells but not bacteria? Shared: Plasma membrane, DNA, Ribosome and cytoplasma. Structures found in eukaryotic but not bacteria are: Mitochondria, Golgi apparatus, cytoskelethon, Nucleus, rough ER, Smooth ER and lysosome ○ What are some cellular structures found in plant cells but not animal cells? Cell wall, chloroplasts, central vacuole. Outline the structure and function of the cell membrane with regard to water balance and the fluid mosaic model ○ Describe the overall structure of the lipid bilayer. Lipid bilayer are formed by phospholipids that have hydrophilic heads and hydrophobic heads. They are fluid to control what is in and out of the cell. ○ What are the properties of the phospholipid? Which component is hydrophilic and hydrophobic? How do each of those components interact with water? Phospholipds are formed by hydrophilic and hydrophobic parts. Hydrophilic: Head and Hydrophobic: Tail The head is “water lover” which means that they control all the water and substances that come to the cell. The tail is “water repellent” making sure that what is in the cell don’t leave. ○ What is the fluid mosaic model of cell membrane? How do phospholipids contribute to this model? The fluid mosaic model describes the cell membrane as a fluid, flexible structure made up of phospholipids. The phospholipid bilayer provides a dynamic, semi-permeable foundation, while allowing other important components to be integrated into the membrane structure. Identify the functions and relationships of specific organelles and extracellular structures of eukaryotic cells ○ What are the functions of the following cellular structures? Nucleus: Storage of DNA. Cytosol: Area of cytoplasm that is not held by organelles Cytoskeleton: Structural, support and movement of the cell Cytoplasm: Everything included at the cell membrane except the nucleus Cell membrane (plasma membrane): Selects everthing that goes and and out of the cell. Mitochondria: Responsible for producing energy (ATP) by aerobic respiration Chloroplast: Responsible for producing energy in plants Ribosomes: Protein synthesis Flagella: Motile structure Cilia: Small, moving hair-like structures on some cells that help the cell move or move things around it. Rough Endoplasmic Reticulum: Protein production Smooth Endoplasmic Reticulum:Makes phospholipids and stores calcium Golgi Apparatus (body): Finishes, sorts proteins and lipids. Transport Vesicles: Membrane-bound sacs that move materials within the cell Lysosome: Breaks down particles and debris ○ What does it mean to be a “membrane bound” organelle? Being "membrane-bound" means that an organelle is enclosed within its own lipid bilayer membrane, separating it from the surrounding cytoplasm. ○ What cell types would have a flagellum? How do cilia and flagella allow for movement in different cells? Sperm cells. Using ATP – driven motor proteins that interact with microfilaments and microtubles. ○ What organelles are involved in the endomembrane system? ER, Golgy body, Lysosome, Vesicles and cell membranes. ○ What is a biofilm? Give an example. Second cell membrane around the wall, and or a sticky capsule. Key Terms – Chapter 4 activation energy exocytosis passive transport active site facilitated diffusion phagocytosis active transport feedback inhibition phosphorylation coenzymes first law of thermodynamics potential energy cofactors hypertonic products diffusion hypotonic reactants electron transfer chain endocytosis isotonic second law of thermodynamics energy metabolic pathway substrates osmosis turgor pressure Explain the relationship between reactants and products ○ What are reactants and products within a reaction? Reactants are the starting substances that participate in the reaction Products are the new substances formed as a result of the reaction ○ What is activation energy and how do cells store and retrieve energy from organic molecules? Activation energy is the minimum energy required to start a chemical reaction. Cell store energy by running reactions.  ○ What is the first law of thermodynamics? Give an example. The first law says that energy cannot be created or destroyed. Energy can be transferred or converted from one form to another. For example boil water. ○ What is the second law of thermodynamics? Give an example. Energy tends to disperse spontaneously. A good example is when we are working out and we start sweating, our body is trying to regulate temperature sending the heat out and dispersing energy. ○ What is the definition of work? What is ATP? Work occurs as a result of energy transfers. Adenosine triphosphate. Nucleotide that consists of an adenine base, a ribose sugar, and three phosphate groups. Nucleotide monomer of RNA and a coenzyme in many reactions. Important energy carrier in cells. Identify the function and aspects of enzymes within metabolic pathways ○ What is the function of enzymes? What is enzyme specificity? What is the active site? Catalyze chemical reactions within cells. Ability to only catalyze a specific chemical reaction or act on a specific substrate. Pocket in an enzyme where substrates bind and a reaction occurs. ○ Describe some of the effects that can cause enzymes to not work properly. Temperature, salt concentration and pH. ○ What is the purpose of enzymes in a metabolic pathway? Build, remodel or break down an organic molecule. Compare and contrast the processes and cellular mechanisms of substance movement across cell membranes ○ What is the difference between passive and active transport? Passive is when a transport is made without use of energy and active uses energy, normally from ATP. How does concentration gradient affect passive transport? Stronger concentration gradient provides a greater driving force that accelerates the rate of passive transport processes ○ What are the differences between the major types of passive transport? Diffusion is the spontaneous movement of molecules/ions down their concentration gradient, osmosis is the diffusion of water across a semi-permeable membrane, and facilitated diffusion uses specialized transport proteins to assist the movement of substances down their concentration gradient, all without requiring direct energy input. Describe the movement of a solute via diffusion. Influenced by temperature and regional differences in concentration and charge How is facilitated diffusion different from diffusion? Facilitated diffusion uses specialized transport proteins to assist movements and diffusion is the spontaneous movement of molecules and ions. ○ How are solutions described in terms of concentration of solutes? What do these terms mean? Main Concentration Units: Molarity (M): Moles of solute per liter of solution Molality (m): Moles of solute per kilogram of solvent Mole Fraction (χ): Ratio of moles of solute to total moles in solution (dimensionless) Other Units: Parts per Million (ppm) and Parts per Billion (ppb): Very low concentrations, parts of solute per million/billion parts of solution Percent by Mass (w/w%): Mass of solute divided by total mass of solution, expressed as a percentage When a cell interacts with a hypertonic solution what kind of movement occurs across themembrane? Hypertonic solution: Higher solute concentration outside the cell compared to inside When a cell interacts with a hypotonic solution what kind of movement occurs across the membrane? Hypotonic solution: Lower solute concentration outside the cell compared to inside What does it mean when solutions are isotonic? Describe the water/solute movement. The concentration of solutes is the same on both sides of the semi-permeable membrane. Water still moves in and out of the cell, but at equal rates Give examples of hypertonic, hypotonic, and isotonic solutions. Hypertonic: Saltwater (seawater), Hypotonic: Freshwater and Isotonic: Saline Solution (0,9) Key Terms – Chapter 6 aerobic cellular respiration lactate fermentation aerobic respiration citric acid cycle alcoholic fermentation fermentation anaerobic glycolysis Compare and contrast the components and relationships of aerobic and anaerobic processes. Describe the main stages of aerobic respiration (cellular respiration) Identify the components of aerobic respiration (equation) Uses electron transfer chains to make ATP. Aerobic respiration has 4 stages: glycosis, acetyl-CoA formation, the citric acid cycle, and electron transfer phosphorylation. ▪ Identify the location of Glycolysis. Glycolysis occur in the cytoplasm. What are the reactants and products of Glycolysis? What is the ATP yield? Reactants: Products: Glucose Pyruvate (2 molecules) NAD+ (Nicotinamide Adenine Dinucleotide) ATP (2-4 molecules, depending on the specific pathway) ADP (Adenosine Diphosphate) NADH (2 molecules) Inorganic phosphate (Pi) H2O ATP Yield from Glycolysis: 2-4 ATP ▪ Identify the location of Acetyl CoA. Mitochondrial Matrix. What are the reactants and products of Acetyl CoA formation? What is the ATP yield? Reactants: Pyruvate (from glycolysis) Products: CoA (Coenzyme A) Acetyl-CoA NAD+ NADH Decarboxylase enzymes CO2 2-3 ATP per NADH molecule  ▪ Identify the location of Citric Acid (Kreb’s Cycle). Mitochondrial Matrix What are the reactants and products of Citric Acid (Kreb’s Cycle)? What is the ATP yield? Reactants: Inorganic phosphate (Pi) Acetyl-CoA (from the previous stage of acetyl-CoA formation) Products: Oxaloacetate CO2 (2 molecules) H2O NADH (3 molecules) NAD+ FADH2 (1 molecule) FAD (Flavin Adenine Dinucleotide) ATP/GTP (1-2 molecules) ADP Oxaloacetate (regenerated) 2 ATP + 10-12 ATP (from NADH/FADH2) ▪ Identify the location of Oxidative Phosphorylation. Mitochondrial membrane. What are the reactants and products of Oxidative Phosphorylation (Electron Transport Chain)? What is the ATP yield? Reactants: Inorganic phosphate (Pi) NADH and FADH2 (electron carriers produced in Products: earlier stages) ATP Oxygen (O2) H2O ADP Yield 24-28 ATP o Describe the pathway for the H+ ions and electrons during oxidative phosphorylation. What is the final electron acceptor? The final electron acceptor in the oxidative phosphorylation process is oxygen (O2). o What powers ATP synthase? The proton gradient across the inner mitochondrial membrane powers the ATP synthase enzyme to produce ATP during oxidative phosphorylation. Explore the alternate pathways in which organic compounds are broken down within the body Describe ATP formation in terms of fermentation Fermentation produces a small amount of ATP directly through substrate-level phosphorylation during glycolysis, without using an electron transport chain or oxidative phosphorylation. ▪ Why does fermentation of glucose yield less ATP than aerobic respiration? Fermentation produces less ATP than aerobic respiration because it is a less complete and efficient process for breaking down glucose. ▪ Understand the differences between aerobic respiration and fermentation types: What are the reactants and products of Lactic acid fermentation? Reactants: Products: Glucose Lactic acid NAD+ ATP NADH  What are the reactants and products of Alcoholic fermentation? Reactants: Glucose NAD+ Products: Ethanol Carbon dioxide ATP NADH