BIO 121 Test 2 Review PDF

BIO 121 Test 2 Review 1. Define: a. Diagnosis 1. The examination of the patients symptoms and the identification of an illness. b. Prognosis 1. The prediction of the c...

BIO 121 Test 2 Review 1. Define: a. Diagnosis 1. The examination of the patients symptoms and the identification of an illness. b. Prognosis 1. The prediction of the course of disease and how good the treatment and results will be. c. Sign 1. Changes in the body function that can be seen, heard, or felt by the patient (ex. abnormal heartbeat). d. Symptom 1. Changes in body function that may indicate disease. Usually seen by the doctor/physician. (ex. fatigue) 2. Can’t be measured. e. Microorganism 1. Organism that can only be seen through a microscope. f. Parasites 1. Organisms that behave like tiny animals living in or on a host and feeding from or at the expense of the host. g. Host 1. The organism where the parasite lives or feeds from. h. Pathogen 1. Disease causing organisms. i. Pathogenic 1. Potential disease-causing capacity of pathogens. j. Infection 1. The invasion of tissues and growth of a microorganism in the body. k. Systemic 1. Affecting the entire body, instead of one organ or body part. l. Passive carrier 1. Carry pathogen without having the disease. m. Incubatory carrier 1. Transmit a pathogen during the incubation period of disease. n. Convalescent carrier 1. May harbor and transmit a pathogen while recovering from a disease. o. Active carrier 1. Completely recovered but harbor the disease indefinitely. p. Droplet  1. A form of disease transmission contact. (ex. coughing, sneezing, suctioning) (airborne particles) q. Aerosol 1. Small particles suspended in the atmosphere. r. Bacteria 1. Single celled microorganisms. 2. Non pathogen; do not normally cause disease s. Virus 1. Microorganisms made up of nucleic acid and covered with a protein shell that replicates in cell. Genetic material; DNA or RNA t. Fungi 1. Single or multicell organism that are able to survive outside a host. (ex. Yeasts) 2. They absorb food and nutrients produced after the secretion of digestive enzymes into their surroundings. u. Opportunistic 1. An infection caused by an organism that normally does not cause disease. v. Metazoan 1. Any of a group that comprises all animals having the body composed of cells differentiated into tissues and organs and usually a digestive cavity lined with specialized cells. w. Sterilization 1. To sterilize an object means to kill every living microorganism on it. 2. Refers to the killing or destruction of all microorganisms, including bacterial spores. x. Disinfection 1. Kills all pathogens but does not necessarily kill all microbes. 2. Process of destroying pathogenic organisms, but not necessarily all microorganisms or bacterial spores. y. Antisepsis 1. When bacteria is not necessarily killed but Is prevented. 2. Process used to decrease the number of microorganisms that are present on the skin. z. Apocrine 1. A type of gland that is found in the skin, breast, eyelid, and ear. aa. Alopecia 1. Loss of hair from the body. (Baldness) bb. Cyanosis 1. A bluish color on the skin when there is not enough oxygen in circulating blood. cc. Jaundice  1. A yellow color on the body when there is too much bilirubin in the body. 2. Indicates that there is a problem in the liver, gallbladder, and pancreas. dd. Keratin 1. A type of protein found in the skin, hair, and nails. ee. Lesion 1. An area of abnormal or damaged tissue caused by injury, infection, or diseases. ff. Stratum corneum 1. Protective layer of skin and is more prominent in thick skin. gg. Sebaceous glands 1. Saclike in structure and their only secretion lubricates the skin and hair to prevent drying. hh. Sudoriferous glands 1. Coiled, tube like structures located in the dermis and the subcutaneous tissue. ii. Carcinoma 1. Cancer that forms in epithelial tissues. jj. Melanoma 1. Cancer that starts in the melanocytes. (cells that form the pigment in skin) kk. Psoriasis 1. Chronic, recurrent overgrowth of epidermis 2. Immune disorder may be involved 3. Sharply outlined red (erythematous) areas with flat areas (plaques) covered with silvery scales ll. Eczema 1. Atopic dermatitis: condition that causes skin to be itchy, red, bumpy, heat, and dry. mm. Urticaria 1. Hives. Intense itching or inflammation. nn. Epiphysis 1. Irregular end of the long bone 2. widened to strengthen joints and allow for ligaments and tendons to attach. oo. Diaphysis 1. is the narrow portion of the long bone. pp. Osteoporosis 1. A lack of normal bone formation or excess loss of bone tissue. qq. Rhabdomyolysis 1. The breakdown of muscle tissue that leads to the release of muscle fiber contents into the blood. rr. Duchenne’s disease  1. A condition that causes skeletal and heart muscle weakness that quickly gets worse with time. ss. Osteogenesis imperfecta 1. Genetic bone disorder that is present at birth. (Brittle bone disease) tt. Osteosarcoma 1. Most common type of cancer that starts in the bones. uu. Chondrosarcoma 1. Bone cancer that develops in cartilage cells. vv. Neuron 1. The functional cells of the nervous system that are highly specialized cells. ww. Neuroglia 1. The cells the nervous system contains that supports and protects the neurons. xx. Dendrites 1. Neuron fibers that conduct impulses to the cell body. yy. Axons 1. Neuron fibers that conduct impulses away from the cell body. zz. Myelin sheath 1. A fatty material that covers some axons. aaa. Stroke 1. When blood flow to your brain is stopped. bbb. Cerebral hemorrhage 1. Bleeding in and around the brain. ccc. Aphasia 1. Language disorder that affects how you communicate. ddd. Cerebral palsy 1. Disorder that affects movement and coordination. eee. Epilepsy 1. Condition that causes unprovoked reoccurring seizures caused by abnormal electricity activity in the brain. fff. Hematomas 1. Pool of blood outside of blood vessels. ggg. Alzheimer disease 1. Disorder that slowly affects memory, thinking, and eventually the ability to do a simple task. hhh. Parkinson disease 1. Disorder that causes unintended or uncontrollable movements. 2. Draw the chain of infection and explain, in detail, each step (provide examples).  1. Source: infectious agent. (ex. bacteria, virus, fungi, 2. Reservoir: site where pathogens multiply/survive before its transferred to a host. (ex. human, animal, non-living) 3. Portal of Exit: usually matches the pathogen's localization site (ex. influenzae virus exits the respiratory tract) 4. Mode of Transmission: contact (direct, indirect, or droplet) or non-contact (ex. airborne, vehicle, vector borne) 5. Portal of Entry: path to enter body. Natural (contracts disease, mother to fetus) or Artificial (ex. consumed, injection) 6. Susceptible host: person susceptible to contracting the pathogen. (ex. babies, children, adults, medical professionals) 3. What are the functions and structures of: a. The integumentary system i. Dermis Location Structure Function Beneath the epidermis Composed of connective tissue Protection Vascular Nourishment of epidermis Contains accessory structures: Skin elasticity Hair follicles Sensory perception Sebaceous glands Sweat glands Sensory receptors Blood vessels  ii. Epidermis Location Structure Function Outermost Outermost and thinnest layer Protection from wear and portion of the Made up of stratified, squamous, tear, injury, and harmful skin epithelial cells, avascular (no blood substances or lymph vessels) Melanin protects from UV Only living cells are in deepest layer radiation (stratum germinativum) Produces skin pigment melanin. Nourished by skin diffusion of nutrients from dermis. iii. Hypodermis Location Description Function Beneath Composed of loose connective tissue Connects skin to underlying dermis with large amounts of adipose tissue muscle insulation. Has blood vessels and nerve endings Temperature regulation Sensory perception iv. Hair Hair Description Function Composed of keratin Conserve heat when raised by arrector pili muscles. Develops in a follicle. Stimulates secretion of sebum Grows from base of follicle. Structure: Follicle Shaft Root Arrector pili muscle v. Nails Nails Description Function Cover distal end of fingers and toes. Protection Composed of keratin Helps in grasping objects Grow from proximal end. Structure: Root Plate Lunula b. The muscular system Functions of the skeletal Structure Movement of the muscles Endomysium – skeleton deepest layer Maintenance of posture Generation of heat  Perimysium – around each fascicles Epimysium – encases the entire muscle c. The nervous system Function of the nervous Structure Coordinates all body system Central nervous systems system (CNS) Detects and responds to Peripheral nervous stimuli systems (PNS) Brain and spinal cord act as switching centers Nerves carry messages to and from centers d. The skeletal system The Skeletal system Structure Function 206 bones in the body 1. Form a study Bones of the skeleton can framework for the be several different entire body shapes: 2. Protect delicate Flat – ribs, cranium structures like the Short – carpals or brain and spinal tarsals cord Irregular – 3. Work as levers vertebrae, facial with attached bones muscles to produce movement 4. Store calcium salts 5. Produce blood cells (in the red marrow) 4. What are 4 skin pigments, and where does the color come from? 1. Melanin – brown 2. Hemoglobin – red 3. Carotene – orange 4. Bile pigment – yellow 5. How are burns categorized? Explain the following: a. Superficial – first degree burn, affects only the outer layer of the skin. Usually appears as red, painful, dry, and sensitive to touch. b. Superficial partial thickness – second degree burn, extend into the upper layer of the dermis. Usually appear redness, swelling, and blistering.  c. Deep partial thickness – second degree burn but penetrate deeper into the dermis. Appears as a mix of red and white areas, swelling, and may have blisters that can rupture or be intact. d. Full thickness – a third degree burn involving all layers of the skin including the epidermis and dermis. Appear white like leathery. 6. List an example of a causative agent of a fungal, viral and bacterial skin infection. 1. Fungal – tinea or ringworm 2. Viral – herpes simplex virus, shingles, wart or verruca 3. Bacterial skin infections – impetigo (staphylococcal or streptococcal) 7. What are the effects of aging on the: a. Integumentary system 1. Wrinkles or crow’s feet develop around the eyes and mouth because of the loss of fat, elastic fibers, and collagen in the underlying tissues 2. Circulation to the dermis decreases, so white skin looks paler 3. Hair does not replace itself as before and it becomes thinner and drier 4. Sweat glands decrease in number, so there is less output of perspiration and lowered ability to withstand heat. (elderly are more sensitive to the cold) b. Skeletal system 1. Gradual loss of muscle cells 2. Loss of power 3. Tendency to flex hips and knees 4. Decrease in height ---Bone--- 5. Loss of calcium salts and collagen 6. Bone weakening 7. Reduction in collagen ---Joints--- 8. Thinning of cartilage 9. Decreased flexibility c. Muscular system d. Nervous system 8. What 4 things can be done to care for skin? 1. Proper nutrition 2. Adequate circulation 3. Regular cleansing (exfoliation) 4. Protection from sunlight 9. How many types of muscle are there? Which ones are voluntarily controlled? Where are they located? 1. There are three types of muscles. (Smooth, Cardiac, Skeletal) 2. The skeletal muscle has voluntary muscle movement.  3. They are located in: Skeletal – attached to bones and joints Cardiac – found in the walls of the heart Smooth – walls of hollow body organs, blood vessels, and respiratory passageways. 10. Explain the layers of muscle (innermost to outermost) Endomysium is the deepest layer of the connective tissue and surrounds the individual fibers in the fascicles. Perimysium is a connective layer tissue around each fascicle. Epimysium is a connective tissue sheath that encases the entire muscle. 11. What connects bone to bone? Bone to muscle? Ligaments connect bone to bone. Tendons attach muscles to bone. All these tissues merge to form tendons which attaches a muscle to a bone. 12. How are skeletal groups named? Location – using the names of a nearby bone, or a position, such as lateral, medial, internal or external Size – using terms like maximus, major, minor, longus and brevis Shape – terms like circular, triangular, or trapezoid Direction – of fibers, including straight of angled Number of heads (attachment points) as indicated by the suffix (biceps, triceps, and quadriceps) Action – as in flexor, extensor, adductor, abductor 13. Can you label the front and back of muscle man?? Skeleton man? IM TRYING!!!!! 14. What are the effects of exercise on muscle? Improved balance, joint flexibility Increased muscle size (hypertrophy) Improves muscle tissue Vasodilation Strengthened heart muscle Improved breathing and respiratory efficiency Weight control Stronger bones 15. What is the difference between: a. Strain vs. sprain Strain: are common muscle injuries caused by overuse or overstretching Sprain: are more severe than strains and involve tearing of the ligaments around the joint. b. Cerebral contusion vs. concussion  Cerebral Contusion: temporary brain dysfunction after injury - There may be no evidence of structural damage to brain tissue or loss of consciousness - Rest is very important to allow the brain to heal - Usually clears within 24 hours Cerebral Concussion: bruising of the brain tissue through direct trauma to the head - Usually associated with skull fracture as well as edema and an increase in intracranial pressure - Neurological deficits persist longer than 24 hours c. Red marrow vs. yellow marrow - Red marrow: found in the spongy bone at the end of the long bones and at the center of other bones. (will manufacture blood cells) - Yellow marrow: found mainly in the central cavities of long bones. (composed largely of fat) d. Appendicular vs. axial skeleton The Appendicular skeleton includes all the bones that form the upper limbs, lower limbs, shoulder, and pelvic girdles. - 126 bones of the extremities (appendicular has more bones) - The bones of the appendicular skeleton (the limbs and the girdles) “append” to the axial skeleton The Axial Skeleton includes all bones along the body’s long axis. Bones that form the skull, laryngeal skeleton, vertebral column, and the thoracic cage. - 80 bones of the head and trunk e. Kyphosis vs. lordosis vs. Scoliosis Kyphosis (hunchback) Exaggerated convex curve Lordosis (swayback) Exaggerated concave curve Scoliosis f. CNS vs. PNS CNS – Central Nervous System: includes the brain and spinal cord PNS – Peripheral Nervous System: is made up of all the nerves outside the CNS Both include all of the nervous tissue in the body g. Somatic vs. Autonomic nervous system Somatic nervous system is controlled voluntarily (consciously) and all the effectors are skeletal muscles. Autonomic nervous system is controlled involuntarily. 16. How are bones formed? Name the 3 types of bone cells and their functions Bones begin as cartilages (long bones) or fibrous membranes (flat bones) - Osteoclasts-like cells remove cartilage (long bones)  - Ossification: osteoblasts replace cartilage or fibrous membrane with bone tissue - Osteoblasts trapped In bone tissue become osteocytes - Osteoclasts and osteoblasts renew bone tissue throughout life. The three types of bone cells and their functions are: - Osteoblasts: builds bone tissue - Osteocytes: maintain bone tissue - Osteoclasts: break down bone tissue (responsible for resorption) 17. How many bones are there in the body? - 206 bones in the body. 18. Bone disorders can be caused by which 4 things? Provide examples of each. 1. Metabolic diseases – Osteoporosis, Paget’s disease 2. Tumors – Osteosarcoma 3. Infections – Septic arthritis 4. Structural problems – Scoliosis, Club foot 19. List 8 types of fractures and how the bone breaks. 1. Closed Fracture - a simple bone fracture with no open wound 2. Open fracture - a broken bone protrudes through the skin, or an external wound leads to a broken bone 3. Greenstick fracture – one side of the bone is broken and the other is bent, most common in children 4. Impacted fracture – the broken ends of bone are jammed into each other 5. Comminuted fracture – there is more than one fracture line and one is splintered or crumbled 6. Spiral fracture – the bone has been twisted apart. Common in skiing accidents. 7. Transverse fracture – the fracture goes straight across the bone 8. Oblique fracture – the break occurs at an angle across the bone 20. How do fractures heal? - Blood clot forms around fracture - Blood vessels grow into clot, pulling connective tissue with them - Fibroblasts and chondroblasts convert clot into a soft callus - Macrophages remove remains of blood clot, and osteoclasts resorb dead bone tissue - Osteoblasts convert soft callus into a hard callus of spongy bone - Osteoclasts and osteoblasts remodel hard callus into compact bone 21. What are the 3 types of joints, and 3 types of joint disorders? Three types of joints  - Fibrous – fibrous connective tissue between bones (skull bones). They are immovable with no joint cavity. - Cartilaginous – cartilage between bones (joints between vertebrae). They can slightly move but have no joint cavity. - Synovial – joint cavity containing synovial fluid (socket joint) which is freely movable. Three types of joint disorders - Mechanical (stress) disorders (dislocation, sprains, etc.) - Herniated disk - Arthritis (gout, etc.) 22. What are 7 types of movement at synovial joints? 1. Flexion – bending the elbow 2. Extension – straightening the elbow 3. Abduction – raising the arms sideways 4. Adduction – bringing the arm back down to the side 5. Rotation – rotating the head from side to side 6. Circumduction – moving the arm in circular motions 7. Opposition – movement of the thumbs towards the fingers for grasping and pinching. 23. What is the function of: a. Cerebrum – it is the largest and most superior portion of the brain. - It is the site for conscious thought, memory, reasoning, and abstract mental functions b. Diencephalon – between the cerebrum and the brain stem, contains the thalamus and the hypothalamus. - Thalamus: sorts and redirects sensory input - Hypothalamus: maintains homeostasis, controls autonomic nervous system and pituitary glands. c. Brain stem – is the anterior region below the cerebrum - The superior portion of the brain stem is the midbrain - Connects cerebrum and diencephalon with spinal cord - Has reflex centers concerned with vision and hearing. Connects cerebrum with lower portions of the brain. d. Pons – is anterior to the cerebrum - Connects the cerebellum with other portions of the brain - Will help regulate respiration e. Medulla oblongata – between the pons and the spinal cord - Links the brain with the spinal cord - Has centers for control of vital functions, such as respiration and the heartbeat f. Cerebellum – below the posterior portion of the cerebrum - Coordinates voluntary muscles  - Maintains balance and muscle tone 24. List 3 types of CVAs 1. Thrombotic – a blood clot in an artery leaving the brain 2. Embolic – a dislodged clot that travels to the cerebral arteries 3. Hemorrhagic – a blood vessel breaks and bleeding occurs 25. What causes a migraine? - Stress, sleep disturbances, medications, genetics, diet, hormones, etc. - A severe, recurring, unilateral, vascular headache Terms to study Word Part Meaning Example Disorders of Bone -malacia softening Osteomalacia is a softening of bone tissue. -penia lack of In osteopenia, there is a lack of bone tissue. The Joints Abduction is movement away from the midline of the ab- away from body. ad- toward, added to Adduction is movement toward the midline of the body. on both sides, around, amphi- An amphiarthrosis is a slightly movable joint. double arthr/o joint, articulation A synarthrosis is an immovable joint, such as a suture. circum- around Circumduction is movement around a joint in a circle. Word Part Meaning Example Bones An osteoclast breaks down bone in the process of -clast break resorption. through, The diaphysis, or shaft, of a long bone is between the two dia- between ends, or epiphyses. bone, bone oss, osse/o Osseous tissue is another name for bone tissue. tissue bone, bone oste/o The periosteum is the fibrous membrane around a bone. tissue Bones of the Axial Skeleton cost/o rib Intercostal spaces are located between the ribs. para- near The paranasal sinuses are near the nose. pariet/o wall The parietal bones are the side walls of the skull. Bones of the Appendicular Skeleton The infraspinous fossa is a depression inferior to the spine of infra- below, inferior the scapula. The metacarpal bones of the palm are near and distal to the meta- near, beyond carpal bones of the wrist. above, The supraspinous fossa is a depression superior to the spine supra- superior of the scapula.